Abstract
Group ranches (GRs) were established in Kenya in the 1960s and 1970s; their objectives included the increase of pastoral land productivity and the control of land degradation. Since their establishment, GRs have evolved and new trends have emerged in resource management with significant impact on socio-ecological systems (SESs). Little is known about these changes on the GRs in Laikipia County. The central thesis for this study was that GR-level-driven and/or collective action innovations are socio-ecologically more resilient compared to household/individual-level strategies. This study investigated emerging innovations, their drivers and perceived and felt impacts, using Il Motiok GR as a case study. Tools used included semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and second order cybernetics. Qualitative analysis using SPSS software was done. The results showed that emerging innovations could be divided into either household/individual- or community-level-driven processes. Some of the innovations in natural capital management included the trading of grazing rights, expansion of traditional enclosures, adoption of ‘new’ livestock species and/or breeds, and crop cultivation. Household-level-driven innovations were influenced by wealth status, age and level of education. Economic returns and to some extent the greater good influenced community-driven initiatives. Formal groupings such as self-help groups and business associations were replacing declining traditional social networks based on clans and age sets/groups. Climate change, development agencies, cultural and technological change and neighbourhood social learning are perceived as having inspired the innovations. Innovations that fragmented natural and social capital were inclined to limit socio-ecological resilience. Implementation of new interventions among communities must factor in the possibilities of transformation and/or emergence of new innovations beyond those initially conceptualised as implementation progresses. Supportive policies that recognise the increasing complexity of common property use are needed to address emerging ‘new’ land use changes. Furthermore, there is need to nurture emergent promising innovations and stop those considered detrimental to the sustainability of SESs.
Highlights
Pastoralism in Eastern Africa has faced many challenges in recent decades, including an increase in climate variability and subsequent effects on forage and water availability, the declining authority of traditional institutions that effectively managed range resources in the past (Bekure et al 1991; Sundstrom et al 2012), reducedKibet et al Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice (2016) 6:16African rangelands with the goal of building or restoring the resilience of ecosystems
It is evident from the results that the group ranches (GRs) model has shown unpredictable innovation pathways in the management of natural and social assets not envisaged at its inception
There are many factors that may have influenced the emergence of new innovations; climate change, development agents and social learning from neighbours as part of a wider change in lifestyle are likely to have been some of the important ones
Summary
Pastoralism in Eastern Africa has faced many challenges in recent decades, including an increase in climate variability and subsequent effects on forage and water availability, the declining authority of traditional institutions that effectively managed range resources in the past (Bekure et al 1991; Sundstrom et al 2012), reducedKibet et al Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice (2016) 6:16African rangelands with the goal of building or restoring the resilience of ecosystems. Several studies have focused on impacts of the subdivision of GRs to plots held under individual freehold tenure Such impacts may be on wildlife (Wayumba et al 2006; Western et al 2009), on the livelihood of agro-pastoral households (Burnsilver and Mwangi 2007; Thornton et al 2006), on livestock populations (Boone et al 2005) and on social capital and traditional management systems (Sundstrom et al 2012). Nine GRs have ‘consolidated’ their land parcels for wildlife management and conservation under an umbrella body, the Naibunga Wildlife Conservancy These efforts seemed to have paid off in view of the fact that the region has the second largest population of wildlife outside the protected areas of Kenya, with increasing livestock populations (Kinnaird et al 2012; Ngene et al 2013; WRI et al 2007)
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