Abstract
This article offers a broad comparative overview of four countries that recognize two or more legally equal official languages. Beginning with the historical foundations for language pluralism, it compares selected social structural dimensions: the size, stability, and geographical distribution of language groups; the interface of language divisions with other social cleavages; and foreign influences on domestic language situations. The article discusses intergroup attitudinal studies and emphasizes intergroup sympathy levels as a factor in language planning. A core section then examines constitutional guarantees and ordinary laws on language usage or language rights, including both substantive provisions and the loci of decision-making in each country. A final section touches briefly on how these countries deal with resource allocation among language groups. Among the four countries, Finland stands out from the others for higher linguistic instability, more flexible adjustment of language boundaries, a unitary (i.e. non-federal) form of government, and some recent indications of transition towards a more pluralistic linguistic model.
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