Abstract
The modes of interaction (e.g., mouse and touch) between maps and users affect the effectiveness and efficiency of transmitting cartographic information. Recent advances in eye tracking technology have made eye trackers lighter, cheaper and more accurate, broadening the potential to interact with maps via gaze. In this study, we focused exclusively on using gaze to choose map features (i.e., points, polylines and polygons) via the select operation, a fundamental action preceding other operations in map interactions. We adopted an approach based on the dwell time and buffer size to address the low spatial accuracy and Midas touch problem in gaze-based interactions and to determine the most suitable dwell time and buffer size for the gaze-based selection of map features. We conducted an experiment in which 38 participants completed a series of map feature selection tasks via gaze. We compared the participants’ performance (efficiency and accuracy) between different combinations of dwell times (200 ms, 600 ms and 1000 ms) and buffer sizes (point: 1°, 1.5°, and 2°; polyline: 0.5°, 0.7° and 1°). The results confirmed that a larger buffer size raised efficiency but reduced accuracy, whereas a longer dwell time lowered efficiency but enhanced accuracy. Specifically, we found that a 600 ms dwell time was more efficient in selecting map features than 200 ms and 1000 ms but was less accurate than 1000 ms. However, 600 ms was considered to be more appropriate than 1000 ms because a longer dwell time has a higher risk of causing visual fatigue. Therefore, 600 ms supports a better balance between accuracy and efficiency. Additionally, we found that buffer sizes of 1.5° and 0.7° were more efficient and more accurate than other sizes for selecting points and polylines, respectively. Our results provide important empirical evidence for choosing the most appropriate dwell times and buffer sizes for gaze-based map interactions.
Highlights
Interactivity is a basic and indispensable characteristic of modern electronic/web maps and geographic information systems (GIS)
This study explored the effects of dwell time and buffer size on the efficiency and accuracy of gaze-based map feature selection
The results showed that for the selection of both point and polyline features, the participants were more efficient but less accurate with a larger buffer size
Summary
Interactivity is a basic and indispensable characteristic of modern electronic/web maps and geographic information systems (GIS). The interactions between maps and users play an important role in the effective and efficient transmission of spatial information through web maps. Two well-established methods in human–computer interactions (HCIs), are commonly used to interact with maps on computer screens and mobile devices, recent advances in sensing technology (e.g., gaze tracking and gesture sensing) have broadened the potential of new map interaction methods, such as gaze- and gesture-based interactions [1,2]. Eye trackers are becoming lighter, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11, 127 gaze- and gesture-based interactions [1,2]. Gaze gestures (i.e., specific eye movement sequences such as a horizontal followed by a vertical stroke) are robust against unintentional interactions [27–29]. Hyrskykari et al [14] compared the performance of gaze gestures and dwell-based interactions and discovered that the former was as good as or better than the latter. Gaze gestures necessitate additional time after finishing gestures before initiating actions; gaze gestures require users to learn and memorize the gestures
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