Toward a behavioral theory of “creativity”: A preliminary essay.

Standards for Cultural Competence in Behavior Analysis Practice are based on the need interpreted by the Multicultural Alliance for Behavior Analysis, which believes that socially responsible Behavior Analysts, and those in study of Behavior Analysis, have the ethical responsibility to be culturally competent clinicians. material that follows is the first attempt by the profession to delineate standards for culturally competent behavior analysis practice. There are currently 12,118 certificants from 57 different counties registered with the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) (BACB, personal communication, March 7, 2013). In addition, the United States Census bureau projects there will be significant increases in racial and ethnic diversity over the next four decades, in part due to international migration (Guarneri & Ortman, 2009). Paralleling this growth, Behavior analysts will be called to serve an increasingly heterogeneous population. Ensuring that this diverse population obtains the level of care necessary, delivered in a culturally sensitive fashion, will be a challenge behavior analysts and health systems, and policy makers (Branch & Fraser, 2000) Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) has a diversity policy, in which they support diversity. It states: The Association for Behavior Analysis International seeks to be an organization comprised of people of different ages, races, nationalities, ethnic groups, sexual orientations, genders, classes, religions, abilities, and educational levels. ABAI opposes unfair (Diversity Policy, 2012). Similarly, the BACB, has outlined Guidelines for responsible conduct which includes: 1.02 Competence (a) Behavior analysts provide services, teach, and conduct research only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, or appropriate professional experience. (b) Behavior analysts provide services, teach, or conduct research in new areas or involving new techniques only after first undertaking appropriate study, training, supervision, and/or consultation from persons who are competent in those areas or techniques. 1.05 Professional and Scientific Relationships (b) When behavior analysts provide assessment, evaluation, treatment, counseling, supervision, teaching, consultation, research, or other behavior analytic services to an individual, a group, or an organization, they use language that is fully understandable to the recipient of those services. They provide appropriate information prior to service delivery about the nature of such services and appropriate information later about results and conclusions. (c) Where differences of age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status significantly affect behavior analysts' work concerning particular individuals or groups, behavior analysts obtain the training, experience, consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make appropriate referrals. (d) In their work-related activities, behavior analysts do not engage in discrimination against individuals or groups based on age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law. (e) Behavior analysts do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status, in accordance with law. Standards for Cultural Competence in Behavior Analysts aims to provide a framework for Behavior Analysts to work within a heterogeneous population (see appendix a) * Definition: Culture In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner offered a simple behaviorist definition of culture: social environment is what is called culture. …

Since the publication of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior (1957), interest in a behavioral approach to the study of language has grown. Skinner laid an impressive framework for the interpretation of many language-related phenomena that were traditionally left to linguists and philosophers. What Skinner lacked was any sound empirical data to support his analyses. Recently, behavior analysts have suggested that, despite much promise, there is a scarcity of research derived from Skinner's Verbal Behavior. However, in the years since the publication of Verbal Behavior, the amount of verbal behavior research published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at professional conferences has increased. Moreover, technology derived from a behavioral analysis of language has been to great use in a variety of clinical settings. The future of verbal behavior research and theory seems promising, especially as behavior analysts move toward incorporating into the behavioral arsenal relevant methodological and technological advances from other fields. ********** Since the publication of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior (1957), interest in a behavioral approach to the study of language has grown. In the years immediately following publication, Verbal Behavior itself drew much criticism from the behavioral community because of the theoretical, rather than empirical, basis for the book. Skinner laid an impressive framework for the interpretation of many language-related phenomena that were traditionally left to linguists and philosophers. What Skinner lacked was any sound empirical data to support his analyses. The power of his book was largely dependent on the acceptance of language as behavior similar to the nonverbal behavior that had been studied in the laboratory by Skinner and his colleagues for 20-years. However, the behavioral community's reluctance to accept Skinner's work with open arms is not to say that the topic itself was dismissed. Rather, it seemed that it was time for behavior analysts to put their money where their mouths were. If no research had yet demonstrated the effectiveness of Skinner's analysis, then it was time to it to the test. The success that the behavioral community has had in doing so remains a subject of debate. Recently, behavior analysts have suggested that, despite much promise, there is a scarcity of research derived from Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In reality, this oft-promoted idea seems largely unjustified. If one restricted themselves to the pages of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (TAVB), which is arguably the flagship journal for verbal behavior, then it could seem that the fruits of Skinner's labor were largely theoretical in nature (see below). A closer look at other behavioral journals and journals outside of behavior analysis reveals a different picture, however. John Eshleman (1991) undertook an exhaustive review of psychology journals searching for verbal behavior research, the results of which were published in TA VB. Although Eshleman started with traditional computer searches, he soon graduated to physically looking through actual journals and reviewing each article, not just those with seemingly related descriptors or mentions of Skinner. Additionally, he reviewed the proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis (ABA) since 1975 and tallied the number of verbal behavior presentations. Eshleman found that actually, the amount of empirical research related to Skinner's 1957 analysis had steadily increased over the years. He proposed that comparisons of verbal behavior research to other areas of behavioral research resulted in a distorted picture. That is, the amount of verbal behavior research published each year continues to be much less than published research from other areas of behavior analysis. However, if verbal behavior research is compared to itself over the years, there is a clearly accelerating trend. …

Part I: Background for Ethics in Behavior Analysis. How We Got Here. Core Ethical Principles. What Makes Behavior Analysis Unique? Most Frequent Ethical Problems. Everyday Ethical Challenges for Average Citizens and Behavior Analysts. Part II: Understanding and Following the Behavior Analyst Certification Board Guidelines for Responsible Conduct. Responsible Conduct of a Behavior Analyst (Guideline 1). The Behavior Analyst's Responsibility to Clients (Guideline 2). Assessing Behavior (Guideline 3). The Behavior Analyst and the Individual Behavior Change Program (Guideline 4). The Behavior Analyst as Teacher or Supervisor (Guideline 5). The Behavior Analyst and the Workplace (Guideline 6). The Behavior Analyst's Ethical Responsibility to the Field of Behavior Analysis (Guideline 7). The Behavior Analyst's Ethical Responsibility to Colleagues (Guideline 8). The Behavior Analyst's Ethical Responsibility to Society (Guideline 9). The Behavior Analyst and Research (Guideline 10). Part III: Professional Skills for Ethical Behavior Analysts. Conducting a Risk-benefit Analysis. Delivering the Ethics Message Effectively. Avoiding the Slippery Slope of Ethical Problems by Using a Declaration of Professional Services. Part IV: Tips, Guidelines, Index, and Scenarios for Students. A Dozen Practical Tips for Ethical Conduct on Your First Job. Appendix A: Behavior Analyst Certification Board Guidelines. Appendix B: Index for Behavior Analyst Certification Board Guidelines for Responsible Conduct. Appendix C: 50 Ethics Scenarios for Behavior Analysts. Appendix D: Suggested Further Reading.

Applied behavior analysts are developing and supplanting existing children's services in many states. While many elements may determine success and failure with a particular child, some practices will greatly enhance success with clients. Four tactics are considered here: (a) shared basic knowledge of behavior analytic principles (b) application of the correct behavior analytic model of child development (c) a functionalist perspective that allows for individualization of treatment; and (d) consumer profiling. The Importance of Shared Basic Knowledge of Behavior Analytic Principles Behavior analysis services are greatly in demand for work with children in school, home, and community settings. Behavior analysts work as members of a team. Typically, they design programs that are then implemented by other people. In a school setting, the behavior analysts may be working with teachers and teaching assistants. In home situations, they will be working with families and staff to implement programs. Usually the behavior analysts do not work directly with the children (or do so infrequently for assessment purposes). Instead, they function as consultants working with staff and family implement the programs. For consistent and effective implementation of programs, it is essential that the individuals involved understand what they are doing and why. Therefore, it is imperative that the behavior analysts be able to communicate effectively about behavioral principles to people working directly with the child. Those implementing the plans must be able to identify the function(s) of the (problem) behaviors for the individual child and which factors in the environment are causing and/or maintaining the behaviors. It is not enough, for example, for a parent to follow a recipe for a token system, time out, or an incidental teaching protocol. Just as rote learning without understanding in children rarely generalizes to effective learning, so too individuals working to change problem behaviors will not be effective in doing so without understanding the principles involved. For example, using time-out when problem behavior is maintained by escape from an aversive task would likely function as a reinforcer and thus would fail to decrease problem behavior. Furthermore, motivation to follow through on all aspects of a plan, (particularly aspects which may be boring for the helper or be met with resistance from the child), often depends on understanding why these procedures are important. The premise here is that when all involved have the same basic knowledge of behavioral principles, it is easier to plan together, implement, and reassess treatment plans as a team. In order to take the role of team leader and educator of other team members, as described above, the behavior analyst should possess certain basic competencies. Shook and Favell (1996) list basic competencies which behavior analysts should be expected to demonstrate. This list was compiled through a national survey conducted by the Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation as a means of updating the Florida Behavior Analysis Certification Examination. Two hundred fifty-six individuals from 35 states participated in this survey. All were certified behavior analysts in Florida or Oklahoma or full members of the Association for Behavior Analysis. The results were compiled into a list of 108 competencies (divided into 12 content areas) which were judged by the respondents to be important skills in behavior analysis. These competencies, (see Shook and Favell, 1996, or Shook, Hartsfield, and Hemingway, 1995, for the complete list), include skills relating to conducting a behavioral assessment using various methods to collect assessment information, summarizing and interpreting this information and designing treatment programs based on these. In addition, credentialed behavior analysts must be able to identify the characteristics of behavior analysis (and distinguish between behaviorism, the experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis) and identify legal and ethical considerations (e. …

Editorial

Recently there has been an increased interest in Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior, most notably among parents of with seeking to reverse and correct devastation of condition. The current commentary suggests that with of Skinner's analysis and subsequent application in clinical treatment that analyst's have a responsibility to properly educate community about history of analysis of verbal and to adequately train people who conduct protocols using Skinner's analysis or suffer lessons of past. ********** Recently there has been an increased interest in Skinner's 1957 Verbal Behavior. This is a long awaited change among those of us who have studied Skinner's work and have long believed in validity of his analysis. Much of new interest in this body of work has come about due to application of Skinner's analysis by Sundberg and Partington with who have autism. This work is outlined in 1998 book Teaching Language to Children With Autism or Other Developmental Disabilities and formalized through publication of their assessment manual The ABLLS Protocol (Partington & Sundberg, 1998). This protocol in hands of someone familiar with functional analysis of verbal is a powerful tool not only in assessing deficits and strengths in verbal behavior, but in creating an intervention program for with deficit verbal repertoires. Note that I have not specifically stated children with autism because truth be known when assessment is used appropriately with with other developmental disabilities it is just as powerful in assisting to determine deficit repertoires. Although, sudden given rise to Skinner's analysis is due mainly to it's application in community, it seems important to remember that this is indeed verbal behavior. The analysis applies to all organisms when learning to become members of their verbal community and operants are apparent in every verbal community. Perhaps most important statement that must be made at this point is that along with this rise in popularity among analysts comes a large responsibility. The most important thing that Behavior Analysts could do for analysis, and more focally analysis of verbal is to properly educate people about history of analysis, basic and applied taking this opportunity to promote our science, and not just businesses. Behavior Analysts should not commit same sins that linguist, psychodynamic researchers and clinicians of past have committed. In an article by John Eshelman and Ernest Vargas (1988) pair speaks of promoting behaviorological analysis of verbal behavior. They note several issues of commission and omission that they account for general malaise surrounding radical behaviorist analysis of verbal behavior. Do we not commit same wrong when we allow public, for whatever reason, to call analysis of verbal the new method of ABA or to say that discrete trial training, direct instruction, precision teaching and milieu language training doesn't take into account analysis of verbal behavior a few comments I recently read on an parent internet list for with disabilities. Additionally again and again I have heard of clinicians in field and their new approach to verbal behavior. In meantime I see little about history of analysis or current work in this area of behavior. This does little justice to work of Vargas, Michael, Catania, Sidmund, Sundberg and countless less famous, but equally capable others who have contributed to our knowledge in analysis of verbal behavior. It seems to me to be no different when current analysts omit history upon which they base their current work to public and omission that Eshelman and Vargas speak about. …

Teaching the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement

At its core, productive collaboration between speech-language pathologists and behavior analysts requires effective communication between both parties. Successful communication can be gained in par...

The Science of Consequences: How They Affect Genes, Change the Brain, and Impact Our World

Introduction Speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') academic study of language is heavily influenced by linguistic and cognitive viewpoints. A majority of textbooks and writings familiar to SLPs explore in greater detail the linguistic and structural view of language and offer only a limited summary of the behavioral view whose concepts and implications are not carried throughout the text. Most SLPs are well versed in the phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, and structures of language but are not equally well versed in the functional units that are basic to Skinner's (1957) analysis. Nonetheless, SLP's treatment methods are mostly behavioral (Hegde, 1998, 2008a). Inevitably, this has led to a conceptually inconsistent model of language and treatment of language disorders. Chomsky's (1959) critical review of Skinner's (1957) book--Verbal Behavior--is better known than the book itself. Most students and clinicians seem to be unaware of the invalidity of Chomsky's criticism or the competent responses given to his negative review (e.g., Anderson, 1991; MacCorquodale, 1969, 1970; McLeish & Martin, 1975; Palmer, 2006; Richelle, 1976). Rejoinders to his review have pointed out that Chomsky poorly understood Skinner's Verbal Behavior, behavioral methodology, and behaviorism. Chomsky's misunderstanding of Skinner's book and concepts was so severe that it would prompt most examination graders to read no further (Richelle, 1976, p. 209). Chomsky frequently attributed views of other psychologists to Skinner who had unequivocally repudiated them. In a questionable case of scholarship, Chomsky repeatedly misquoted Skinner (Adelman, 2007). More than four decades after he wrote the review, Chomsky was still a critic of Skinner, and with the same distorted understanding of Skinner's work (Virues-Ortega, 2006). A commonly held assumption among most linguists, and SLPs who follow them, is that Skinner's Verbal Behavior has faded into history. The fact, however, is that research on verbal behavior and treatment of verbal behavior disorders based on Skinnerian analysis are flourishing. Among several others in the Unites States, the journals of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, The Behavior Analyst, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Behavior Modification, and several international journals on behavior analysis regularly publish many articles on the Skinnerian verbal behavior analysis and treatment. This journal, Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis is devoted to bridging the gap between the two disciplines. As Schlinger (2008a) has ably demonstrated, Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well. An interesting observation Schlinger makes is that although both Verbal Behavior and Chomsky's (1957) Syntactic Structures had their 50th anniversary in 2007, Skinner's book on Amazon.com, has been selling better than Chomsky's. The verbal behavior approach to treating children with autism is now recognized internationally as the most evidence-based approach. Teaching almost all forms of communication disorders is essentially behavioral (Hegde, 1998, 2006, 2007; Hegde & Maul, 2006; Pena-Brooks & Hegde, 2007), whether some SLPs acknowledge it or not. In fact, if any tide has turned against something, it is the tide against Chomsky's generative linguistics. While Skinner's experimental and applied behavior analysis is thriving worldwide, Chomsky's generative grammar notion has disappeared from linguistics (Harris, 1993; Leigland, 2007). Chomsky's own multiple revisions and qualifications of his 1957 theory have moved away from a cognitive, generative, rule-based theory of language (Schoneberger, 2000). Within just a few years of Chomsky's Syntactic Structures was published, there was the generative semantic rebellion that denied the supremacy of grammar in language. (Linguists often describe newer approaches as revolution, war, rebellion.) Soon came the pragmatic revolution which asserted in the 1970s that language should be understood as actions performed in social contexts--mostly an arm-chair philosophical view which was still structural in its orientation. …

Generally speaking, behavior analysts are acutely aware of the need for increased communication with those in other fields about the characteristics and achievements of behavior analysis. This awareness may be most acute among those of us who have regular contact with those in various areas of psychology, philosophy, communication, computer science, and other fields. Recently, a particularly salient indicator of how far we have to go in making our work clear to others arrived in the mail. It was a complimentary copy of a small book of “classic readings” in the history of the various subfields of psychology. Noticing that a paper by Watson had been included in an early part of the book, I looked ahead to the section on “Learning” to see if behavior analysis was represented through a paper by Skinner, for example. Thirty years of reading and discussion with critics had, I believed, immunized me from whatever absurdity I might find there, but I soon found myself staring at the “classic paper” in the field of learning: Chomsky's (1959) review of Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior. The review was a polemic that not only hopelessly misrepresented Skinner's systematic interpretations of verbal phenomena and that is not only hopelessly out of date regarding the respective research fortunes and fates of Chomsky's theory and Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior, but that might also be regarded as a misguided indictment of the entire field of learning. There are a variety of ways in which behavior analysts might reach out to other fields and to the general public. One way, of course, is to expand the literature of general, introductory, or semipopular treatments of the field. There is a great deal of explaining and describing to do to correct the remarkably persistent set of misperceptions surrounding behaviorism in general and behavior analysis in particular (e.g., Friman, Allen, Kerwin, & Larzelere, 2000; Leigland, 2000; Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1999). The recent second edition of William Baum's Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture, and Evolution (2005) is an excellent example of an accessible and comprehensive introduction to behavior analysis. The new edition is a refinement of the original work, Understanding Behaviorism: Science, Behavior, and Culture (1994). The small change in subtitle calls attention to expanded and clarified connections between behavior analysis and evolutionary concepts in the new edition. The overall structure and layout of the book are the same as the original, but the new edition includes some changes in style and emphasis. For example, beyond the broader and clarified relations to evolution, this edition also expands the role of the molar analysis of behavior (emphasizing temporally extended contingencies and activities; e.g., Baum, 2002), although the more traditional molecular analysis (emphasizing temporally contiguous relations between momentary events) is given fair treatment throughout. The new edition also increases readability for nontechnical audiences by making greater use of ordinary-language terms in illustrations and examples. Like the first edition, the book is divided into four sections, each of which will serve as the basis for comments below.

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview and research summary of peer-delivered Corrective Reading instruction. Emphasis is placed on a program entitled, Project PALS (Peer-Assisted Learning System) conducted in Washington State. It has been shown that Project PALS can improve the reading performance of high school students who have difficulty reading, including students at risk for school failure and those identified to receive education services. Finally, areas of future research are discussed. ********** Educational reform is at the forefront of national debates. The public is concerned about low achieving public schools; federal and state governments are taking action to instill changes in our schools so that academic success by all children can be realized. Statewide academic testing at various grade levels is being conducted nationwide for accountability and assessment purposes. Educators continue to search for school reform models and procedures that can make a difference in the education of our youth. Behavior analysis in education is a missing voice in current school reform and policy literatures. Parents and education consumer groups need to be convinced of the utility of behavior analysis in education to education reform for EVERY learner, and beyond special learners. John Stone's work (see http://cpaa.asu.edu/cpaa/v4n8.html and http://www.education-consumers.com) is one good source. There are several reasons why behavior analysts are in a prime position to have a great deal of impact on this school reform movement. First, behavior analysts routinely take the kinds of data the public and funding agencies want. Behavior analysts collect both summative and formative data. In fact, one of the attributes that distinguishes behavior analysts from others is their demand for and collection of data. Second, behavior analysts are trained to make data-based decisions. If the kinds of outcomes we expect are not being demonstrated, changes will be made. However, these changes will be made based on data rather than on testimonials or opinions. Third, behavior analysts have the technology to make meaningful changes in school settings. Effective instructional techniques stem from or are consistent with a behavioral framework. These procedures include, but are not limited to, Direct Instruction, Precision Teaching, Personalized System of Instruction, and Programmed Instruction (West & Hamerlynck, 1992) as well as Class-Wide Peer Tutoring, Strategic Instruction, and Cooperative Learning (Meese, 2001). Finally, behavior analysts have expertise in other areas of learning (e.g., functional living skills) that can be adapted to the teaching of academic skills. For example, peer- delivered instruction has a long and rich research base (Fulk & King, 2001; Lindsley & Johnson, 1997; Maheady, Sacca, & Harper, 1988; Meese, 2001). Therefore, taken together, behavior analysts are in a position to make a meaningful and significant impact in our public schools. This paper will address a serious academic problem in the U.S.; specifically, the reading deficits of our middle school and high school students will be examined. Instructional programs and techniques (i.e., Direct Instruction and peer-mediated strategies) that have been applied to this problem will be discussed. Finally, areas of future research will be presented. Project Follow-Through was the largest educational experiment in history, yet the databased results vindicating Direct Instruction and Behavior Analysis models were ignored and (allegedly) covered up. See Lindsley (1984, 1992) as well as http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adiep/ft/151toc.htm for further information. Overview of Reading Problems Over the years whole groups of high school students have experienced leaming failures, particularly in the area of reading, not necessarily because of cognitive deficits but because of poor instruction. …

The View From Here

Geographers study physical environments, human behavior that changes physical environments, and resulting regionally distinct landscapes. As such, geography faces the challenge of being both a physical and human science, a challenge resulting in an uncertain disciplinary identity. Within human geography there is a significant but erratic history of objectivist analyses, including work in cultural geography and behavioral geography. However, most contemporary human geography rejects objectivist analyses, favoring instead subjectivist ideas related to developments in such areas as cultural studies. There important links between human geography and psychology, especially concerning environmental and cognitive approaches, but behavior analysis has been either ignored or misunderstood. ********** It is not unusual for behavior analysts to bemoan the fact their work is sometimes inadequately or unfairly represented by other psychologists, especially in the context of the introductory textbook (Jensen & Burgess, 1997). Writing as a human geographer, I might add that behavior analysis has received minimal attention within the academic discipline of human geography and even such minimal attention has typically misrepresented this approach to the study of human behavior. Behavior analysts might not be surprised to hear about the lack of interest and characteristic misrepresentation of their work within human geography. However, they might be surprised to hear that human geographers have regularly claimed human behavior as core human geographic subject matter. Thus, human geography has a long tradition of studying and behavior interactions (Kitchin, Blades, & Golledge, 1997, p. 555), being with of human behavior to the same degree, though not necessarily in the same way, that the other social sciences are (Ginsburg, 1970, p. 293). According to the Dictionary of Human Geography, the discipline is concerned with the spatial differentiation and organization of human activity and its interrelationships with the physical environment (Johnston, Gregory, Pratt, & Watts, 2000, p. 353). If such is the case, behavior analysts might wonder: Why is it we do not know more about this discipline and why has it not made effective use of the concepts and principles of behavior analysis? Human geographers might respond by noting that their discipline has displayed much uncertainty about subject matter and approaches, accompanied by an almost alarming tendency to abandon established approaches at the expense of newer approaches. Behavior analysts might have different responses to these questions that focus on some of the limitations of their work (Hayes, 2001). purpose of this paper is to seek to uncover past and present links between human geography and behavior analysis. paper is organized into three sections. First, the history and goals of geography summarized. This history introduces the complexity of geography as both a physical (physical geography) and a human (human geography) discipline, a complexity that behavior analysts and other psychologists will readily appreciate. Second, the characteristically tentative and flawed links between human geography and behavior analysis outlined, with emphasis on the subdisciplines of cultural and behavioral geography and on the current preference for subjectivist rather than objectivist approaches. Third, there is a concluding discussion anticipating the contents of a proposed second paper focusing on the challenges of and prospects for conducting behavior analytic studies in human geography. INTRODUCING HUMAN GEOGRAPHY TO BEHAVIOR ANALYSTS The discipline of geography is difficult to define in a few phrases. Unlike many other scholarly fields, it is not characterized by a discrete subject matter or method or even philosophy (Gaile & Willmott, 1989, p. …

Behavior analysis is the underclass of psychology. It is under-funded, under-taught, and underappreciated. A lot is happening that is positive, but just beneath the surface, there are grave dangers lurking that could significantly worsen our already poor status. I prefer to believe that most of these dangers are things we can control by our own behavior (itself a rather behavioral idea), and I offer this list of dangers in that spirit. As someone once said: if you always do what you always did, you'll always get what you always got. Behavior analysts need to appreciate the following six dangers and adapt to them. LOSS OF MISSION Behavior analysis was initially strategically committed to the field of animal learning, but from the beginning its ultimate purpose was an understanding of complex human behavior: importance of a science of behavior derives largely from the possibility of an eventual extension to human affairs (Skinner, Behavior of Organisms, 1938, p. 441). In the early decades that was merely a promise, but the arrival of applied behavior analysis turned it into a program. Over the years, however, both basic and applied behavior analysis have narrowed and that original vision is being lost. Applied behavior analysis is gradually becoming a subfield of developmental disabilities, as a glance at a recent issue of JABA will confirm. The depth of the risk this creates is covered over by methodological rigor and applied impact within that narrow domain. Basic behavior analysis clings largely to narrow and precise questions of self-stimulatory interest in the animal laboratory, even while animal laboratories are being closed one by one, and areas of research within behavior analysis are being opened up that require human research. The depth of the problem is covered over by the productivity of a few major behavioral laboratories and the emergence of a handful of international labs, where protection from political winds have allowed the old seeds to grow a few new sprouts. In some ways, all of the other dangers I list can be traced back to the following core concern. Behavior analysis was always a carom shot. Instead of approaching human complexity directly, it tried to develop conceptual tools based on simple behaviors in simple contexts with small non-human animals, and then to apply these to an analysis of virtually every form of complex human behavior. It was a bold and even slightly preposterous idea, and yet it was one that worked far beyond what anyone had a right to expect. Now, however, we seem to be on the verge of forgetting what the mission was in the first place. Many basic behavior analysts have begun to believe that basic behavior analysis is a subfield of animal learning or (perhaps worse) behavioral biology. Where are the experimental analyses of emotion, friendship, sexuality, health, reasoning, humor, intelligence, and so on? Interpretation is not enough--we need an experimental analysis of such behaviors. Without the basic account, applied behavior analysts either ignore these areas or build common sense approaches to them. TOOL POLISHING No field so enjoys principles as does behavior analysis. Principles of behavior are ways of speaking about the prediction and influence of the historically and currently situated actions of organisms that are precise, broadly applicable, and coherent in terms of the larger fabric of science. Principles are the intellectual tools of analysis. They are not, however, ends in themselves. Sometimes behavior analysts are like the watchmakers who decided to make a set of extremely fine tools before actually making some complicated new watches. Forgetting what the tools were for, the talented watchmakers did not build the watches and display them in a glass cabinet, but instead put the tools themselves in that cabinet, taking them out only to polish them and to show how they work. Basic behavior analysts are especially prone to this error. …