Tourism(s) and the way to democracy in Myanmar

Abstract

In few other countries than Myanmar have political context and tourism been so closely linked for more than fifty years. After the open situation of colonial times and the early days of independence, the military junta closed the country from 1962 to 1988, by using a severe visa policy. From 1988 to 2010 a new military regime began to open the country to attract foreign currencies and restore the image of the country on the international stage through a proactive policy and by organizing a Visit Myanmar Year in 1996. Despite its moderate success, this event was the starting point of tourism in the country, with the construction of basic infrastructure, often motivated by opaque strategies and money laundering. The Visit Myanmar Year was also the starting point of several years of calls to boycott tourism by Western Human Rights NGOs; however, boycott was not a consensual issue, and conflict pitted NGOs and guidebook editors; moreover, its impact seems to have significantly decreased in the 2000s. In 2010, the military junta took the decision to dissolve itself in favour of an officially endorsed civilian government; this change, along with tourism reforms, spurred tourism. However, this government-led initiative was embedded within the legacy of the military junta's framework and networks: transitional tourism has been marred by corruption, money-laundering and unrealistic projects with heavy social and environmental costs, such as over-sized hotel zones.