Abstract
Human life span expectancy has increased, and aging affects the organism in several ways, leading, for example, to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. Age-adjusted prevalence of the cardiovascular diseases is higher in males than females. Aging also affects the gonadal sex hormones and the sex differences observed in cardiovascular diseases may be therefore impacted. Hormonal changes associated with aging may also affect the immune system and the immune response is sexually different. The immune system plays a role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. In this context, toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern recognition receptors of the immune system whose activation induces the synthesis of pro-inflammatory molecules. They are expressed throughout the cardiovascular system and their activation has been widely described in cardiovascular diseases. Some recent evidence demonstrates that there are sex differences associated with TLR responses and that these receptors may be affected by sex hormones and their receptors, suggesting that TLRs may contribute to the sex differences observed in cardiovascular diseases. Recent evidence also shows that sex differences of TLRs in cardiovascular system persists with aging, which may represent a new paradigm about the mechanisms that contribute to the sex differences in cardiovascular aging. Therefore, in this mini review we describe the latest findings regarding the sex differences of TLRs and associated signaling in cardiovascular diseases during aging.
Highlights
Over the past years the world population is aging and living longer, which have increased the human lifespan expectancy
Among the components of immune system that contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their signaling pathway have been widely described as having a significant role in the development and progression of these diseases
In this present mini review, we summarize the latest evidence that shows that sex hormones and their receptors can affect the TLR expression and signaling
Summary
Over the past years the world population is aging and living longer, which have increased the human lifespan expectancy. The prospect is that this amount of aged people will continue to grow and reach about 1.4 billion in 2030 and about 2.1 billion in 2050 (World Health Organization, 2020) It should be stressed, that the COVID-19 pandemic may have a large impact on mortality, both in terms of number of deaths and years of life lost, especially in older adults and men (Arolas et al, 2021). Many reports demonstrate that sex hormones and their receptors can influence the cardiovascular health through complex pathways and the cardioprotective effects observed in pre-menopausal women are widely associated with estrogen benefits (Stanhewicz et al, 2018). Among the components of immune system that contribute to the pathogenesis of CVDs, the activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their signaling pathway have been widely described as having a significant role in the development and progression of these diseases.
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