Time-dependent effects on bumble bees of dietary exposures to farmland insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and fipronil).

Abstract

Farmland bees encounter insecticides in their diet when visiting the flowers of pesticide-treated crops with residues in nectar and pollen. A sustained exposure to even trace residues could be severely harmful if the ingested substance has a long biological half-life and its toxicity therefore intensifies over time, which is termed time-reinforced toxicity (TRT). Bumble bees are important farmland pollinators, but their susceptibility to TRT from insecticides has not been established previously. This study therefore investigated the potential for three farmland insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and fipronil) to generate TRT in bumble bees (Bombus terrestris L.) by dietary exposure in the laboratory using lethality as an endpoint under both fixed-dose and pulsed-dose regimes. The insecticides varied in toxic effect. Fipronil exposures produced a dose-dependent reduction in longevity (days of exposure survived) and strong TRT with no evidence of clearance-based recovery. Thiamethoxam exposures also produced a dose-dependent reduction in longevity, but with moderate TRT and evidence of some clearance-based recovery. Imidacloprid exposures produced a hormesis with reduced longevity only at the highest doses and an absence of TRT. Our study further confirms the potential for certain dietary insecticides at trace levels to harm farmland bees during sustained exposures because of their capacity to cause time-reinforced toxicity. Our findings suggest that regulatory oversight of pesticides will better safeguard bee health by testing the active ingredients of farmland agrochemicals for their capacity to produce TRT in these ecologically important nontarget organisms. Our study demonstrates the potential for certain dietary insecticides at trace levels to harm farmland bumble bees during sustained exposures because of their capacity to cause time-reinforced toxicity. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.