Three-Layer ONIOM Studies of the Dark State of Rhodopsin: The Protonation State of Glu181

Abstract

A computational three-layer ONIOM(QM-high:QM-low:MM) hybrid scheme has been applied to analyze the protonation state of the Glu181 amino acid residue in rhodopsin, which is vital to determining the rhodopsin photoactivation mechanism. Due to conflicting evidence from previous studies, it has yet to be conclusively resolved. In this study, we fully optimize dark-state rhodopsin model structures differing only at the 181-residue site—protonated and unprotonated Glu181—and calculate several experimentally observable properties. Comparison of calculated structures, excitation energies, and NMR chemical shifts for the two models with values from the literature allows a reevaluation of previously reported conclusions. A key finding is that the S 1 → S 2 energy level splitting, previously used as evidence for a neutral Glu181, is found to be almost identical for the two protonation states. We highlight a need for caution when interpreting experimental data. Small differences in the properties of the two model structures are also identified, which may be useful targets for future high-resolution experimental approaches.