Thirty-two essential questions for understanding the social–ecological system of forage fish: the case of pacific herring

Abstract

Forage fishes are ecologically and economically important low trophic level species, and in recent years interest in their biology and management has intensified. Pacific Herring are emblematic of the management issues facing forage species—they are central components of the Northeast Pacific pelagic food web and support important commercial fisheries. In addition, the importance of Herring to indigenous peoples have made them cultural keystone species. We employed a participatory process to promote collaborative priority-setting for this critical forage species. Working with managers, the fisheries industry, indigenous peoples, and scientists, we co-constructed a conceptual model of the Pacific Herring social–ecological system () in the Northeast Pacific. We then identified a set of questions, that, if answered, would significantly increase our ability to sustainably manage the Herring . Our objective was to generate a road map for scientists who wish to conduct useful forage fish research, for resource managers who wish to develop new research efforts that could fill critical gaps, and for public agencies and private foundations seeking to prioritize funding on forage fish issues in the Pacific. With this socio-cultural centrality comes complexity for fisheries management. Our participatory process highlighted the value of conceptualizing the full SES, overcame disciplinary differences in scientific approaches, research philosophy, and language, and charted a path forward for future research and management for forage species.