The use and misuse of chi-square: Lewis and Burke revisited.

Abstract

proper use of Karl Pearson's chi-square for the analysis of contingency tables is reviewed. 1949 article by Lewis and Burke, who cited nine sources of error in the use of chi-square, is updated. Research on the application of the chi-square statistic is examined and supplementary and alternative approaches are discussed. Emphasis is placed on techniques that are of use to the practicing researcher who often deals with qualitative ordered and unordered data. In 1949 the landmark article by Lewis and Burke entitled The Use and Misuse of the Chi-Square Test appeared in the Psychological Bulletin. purpose of the article was to counteract the improper use of this statistic by researchers in the behavioral sciences. paper addressed nine major sources of error, cited examples from the literature to illustrate these points, and caused a stir among practicing researchers. Lewis and Burke paper was followed by several responses (Edwards, 1950; Pastore, 1950; Peters, 1950) and a rejoinder by Lewis and Burke (1950). Since then, a great deal of research has been conducted on the chi-square procedure and several methods have been developed to handle some of the problems cited by Lewis and Burke. This article is a review of that literature. It is an attempt to address the problems listed by Lewis and Burke in light of current knowledge and to form recommendations regarding the use and misuse of the chi-square test.