The urban lead burden in humans, animals, and the natural world

Abstract

BACKGROUND AND AIM: History and active and passive policies have concentrated lead in cities; minority and low-income populations have also been concentrated there. Humans have foisted the lead burden onto wild and domesticated urban animals as well as the natural environment. METHODS: Using a One Health approach, we have arrayed the data on the urban lead burden on humans, animals and the natural world. RESULTS:Lead pollution is not distributed evenly across urban areas. Although average US pediatric lead exposures have declined by 90% since the 1970s, there remain well defined neighborhoods where children continue to have toxic lead exposures; animals are poisoned there, too. Those neighborhoods tend to have disproportionate commercial and industrial lead activity; a history of dense traffic; older and deteriorating housing; past and operating landfills, dumps and hazardous waste sites; and often lead contaminated drinking water. The population there tends to be low income and minority. Urban wild and domesticated animals bear that same lead burden. Soil, buildings, dust and even trees constitute huge lead repositories throughout urban areas. CONCLUSIONS:Global warming will increase lead bioavailability and toxicity. Evidence-based research has shown the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of some US public policies to prevent or reduce these exposures. Potential actions to start unencumbering our urban areas include identifying sources of local contamination such as junk yards and auto body shops, reducing exposures to bare lead-contaminated soil, addressing lead contaminated drinking water in schools and homes, etc. KEYWORDS: built environment, environmental disparities, climate, children's outcomes, policy and practice