The urban lead burden in humans, animals and plants

Abstract

Urban residence is a risk factor for children’s elevated lead exposures. Evidence from domesticated and wild animals shows that the phenomenon crosses species lines. Plants also suffer under lead’s phytotoxicity. The Industrial Revolution lured and drove more than half of the US populations from the countryside into cities. Leaded paint, lead in public water systems and later, leaded gasoline, were the principal contributors to lead contamination of US cities. Lead’s incredible utility has resulted in thousands of commercial applications in electronics, hardware, paints and pigments, many types of glass, ceramic glazes and coatings, cable sheaths, machinery and manufacturing, light industry, radiation protection, post and telecommunications, metallurgy, chemical production, transportation (rail, automobile and aviation), construction, weapons, aerospace, oil, plastics and petrochemicals, plumbing, pesticides, hair products, etc. Historically, commercial and industrial activities occurred coterminously to habitation, so the beginnings of all these uses occurred within urban areas. Consequently, urban areas have high lead pollution levels. Lead toxicosis in urban areas is evident across animal species, including pets (Zook et al 1998, Langlois et al 2017), feral pigeons (Cai and Calisi 2016), wild raccoons (Hamir et al 1995) and foxes (Dip et al 2000) and gazing animals (Ward and Savage 1994), Indeed, in 1970, pigeons were considered a sentinel for urban lead pollution (Tansy and Roth); society has continued to use children. Plants in urban areas are also significantly affected by high lead levels (EPA 1984). We used an integrated One Health approach to assess lead’s urban burden in humans, animals and plants. In the future, we will develop conceptual and pragmatic guidance for urban planners and decision makers to address the urban lead burden in humans, animals and plants.