Abstract
Lycopodium clavatum sporopollenin exine capsules (SpECs) are known to both adsorb and absorb chemicals. The aim of the present work was to determine whether oestradiol (E2) is ‘bioavailable’ to bioindicator species, either pre-adsorbed to, or in the presence of, SpECs. SpEC uptake was confirmed for Daphnia magna and Dreissena bugensis. E2 levels varied among treatments for Caenorhabditis elegans though there was no relationship to SpEC load. E2 was not detected in D. bugensis tissues. Expression changes of general stress and E2-specific genes were measured. For C. elegans, NHR-14 expression suggested that SpECs modulate E2 impacts, but not general health responses. For D. magna, SpECs alone and with E2 changed Vtg1 and general stress responses. For D. bugensis, SpECS were taken up but no E2 or change in gene expression was detected after exposure to E2 and/or SpECs. The present study is the first to investigate SpECs and bound chemical dynamics.
Highlights
Oestrogens enter the aquatic environment mainly via sewage treatment works (STWs) effluents
One third of the D. magna and D. bugensis were fixed in 4% formaldehyde, one third immediately frozen at − 80°C for chemical analysis, and one third stored in RNALater at − 20°C for gene expression analysis
sporopollenin exine capsules (SpECs) were observed in the soft tissues of D. bugensis (Fig. 1d, f), but not in mussels exposed to control or E2 alone (Fig. 1e)
Summary
Oestrogens enter the aquatic environment mainly via sewage treatment works (STWs) effluents. A further 500 kg of consumed prescribed oestrogens each year can be added according to calculations by Stuer-Lauridsen and Kjolholt (2000). Such environmental oestrogens are deemed to pose a human and ecological risk at levels over 0.028 and 0.035 ng L−1 respectively, with links to elevated risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease and detrimental reproductive effects in humans (Adeel et al 2017). The surface of SpECs are penetrated by channels, giving a high surface area and absorption capacity (Thio et al 2011; Rowley et al 2011), potentially useful in removing chemicals at STWs. Here, we aimed to determine whether E2 is ‘bioavailable’ to a variety of bioindicator species from freshwater environments, once adsorbed to or in the presence of Lycopodium clavatum SpECs. The effects of E2 on aquatic invertebrates, quantified via LCMS-MS and gene expression, were investigated. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2021) 107:876–882 in E2-dosed water contrasting with E2-loaded SpECs to explore the potential application of SpECs as E2 adsorbents in wastewater treatment
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