The unfulfilled promise of gig work

Taking the individual data from the European Social Survey of 2004 and 2010, the authors of this paper investigate how employment type (permanent, temporary or informal employment) affects subjective well-being in respect to employment protection legislation across European countries. Our study outcomes are in line with previous research disclosing the negative impact of being temporally or informally employed on subjective well-being. The additional contribution of this study is the rigorous analysis of how employment protection legislation (EPL) moderates this effect by applying the multilevel modeling approach for 27 countries. In countries with strict EPL temporary and informal workers are significantly less satisfied with their lives than permanent employees. In countries with liberal EPL no significant decreasing effect from temporary or informal employment on people’s subjective well-being was found.

In the article special attention is paid to the problems of estimating the effect of temporary employment on injuries and occupational diseases. The purpose of the research is to form theoretical and methodological basis for assessing the impact of temporary and informal employment in its broad sense on the level of occupational safety to study the connection between the nature of employment and high risk of injury in the workplace. Various definitions of temporary employment and concepts related to this term are analyzed, which are often used in scientific research. The main characteristics of concepts such as temporary employment, informal economy, informal sector, informal employment, conditional employment are considered. It is substantiated that statistical observation of informal employment is important not only for the improvement of employment policy and statistics of national accounts, but also for the formulation and implementation of labor protection programs, poverty reduction, promotion of small and medium enterprises, productivity growth and socio-economic development of territorial units, creating new jobs. The analysis of the organization of labor and the state of labor markets by countries of the world based on indicators of under-utilization of labor force is carried out. The tendencies of changes in the share of workers with temporary employment by the countries of the world and the changes in the organization of labor influence the labor protection are analyzed. Risk factors that distinguish the work of temporary workers from other types of employment are identified and analyzed, as well as factors that explain the causes of lower levels of occupational safety among temporary employees. The peculiarities of the research of temporary agency workers are determined. It is proved that the lack of mechanisms for monitoring the necessary aspects of the functioning of the labor market impedes the work of regulators, law enforcement agencies and politicians who, in the case of availability of relevant information, can act to strengthen national labor safety standards.

The article is focused on studying peculiarities of employment contracts with seasonal and temporary employees in Ukraine. The employment contract as the basis of the origin of labor relations with seasonal and temporary employees has been researched. The norms of the decrees of the Presidium of the Supreme Rada of the USSR “On working conditions of temporary employees and officials” dated from September 24, 1974 No. 311-09 and “On working conditions of employees and officials engaged in seasonal work” dated from September 24, 1974 No. 310-09 have been analyzed .
 It has been noted that peculiarities of legal regulation of employment contracts with temporary and seasonal employees relate primarily to their conclusion and termination, as well as content. It has been proved that some provisions of regulatory acts that regulate the employment of temporary and seasonal employees are outdated; others require some revision.
 It has been offered to develop modern regulatory acts on the application of temporary and seasonal work. These acts must first of all establish the concept: “seasonal employees – individuals hired under an employment contract for work that as a result of natural and climatic conditions performed not through a year, but during a certain period (season), not exceeding six months”; “temporary employees – individuals hired under an employment contract for a period up to two months, and for the replacement of temporarily absent employees, who retain their place of work (position) – up to four months”. It has been substantiated that the List of Seasonal Works and Seasonal Industries needs to be updated, based on the realities of the present day.

Gig work has been considered ‘disruptive’ by platforms for its market efficiency, but concerns around precarity of work in the Global North have been raised since the early 2000s. In India, the dominance of informal work makes precarious work the norm, thus begging the question, does gig work disrupt or extend this precarity in new directions? Based on in-depth interviews with gig workers in India, this paper explores the relations between the informal economy and platform-based gig work in India with a focus on the experiences of workers. The paper argues that, much like informal work, gig workers bear a disproportionate risk, with their work regulated by social identities of caste and gender that determine entry and exit from work. The digital mediation of work in the gig economy extends such existing social relations of informal work into gig work, especially as labour remains deregulated by the Indian state. Through this, India points us in the direction of what the future of work may be for workers in a global digitised gig economy where such precarious and insecure work is now increasingly entrenched.

Risk Shifts in the Gig Economy: The Normative Case for an Insurance Scheme against the Effects of Precarious Work*

Introduction: The growth of gig work has transformed the contemporary labor market, provided flexibility and independence but also subjected workers to high stressors like job insecurity, economic uncertainty, and irregular workloads. Gig workers work in various sectors, such as ridesharing, food delivery, freelancing, and on-demand services, and usually encounter distinctive occupational hazards. Gig Workers' Well-being (GWW) Model, based on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model and Psychological Capital (PsyCap) theory, presents a systematic approach to understanding job demands and resources and their effect on stress resilience, mental well-being, and job performance among gig workers. This research explores how resilience interventions can reduce stress and improve work engagement and productivity among gig workers. Objectives: The main aim of this research is to create and test a multi-dimensional stress resilience framework that explains the dynamic interaction of multiple influences on wellbeing among gig workers. More specifically, the research intends to explore how job demands can intensify burnout while job resources promote work engagement, and to investigate the dual nature of gig-related factors that can benefit or detract from job performance. Furthermore, the study aims to investigate the contribution of technostress in exacerbating burnout, evaluate the effectiveness of boundary management in enhancing work engagement, and identify the degree to which resilience is responsible for enhanced job performance. Through this holistic examination, the study aims to offer detailed insights into the stress and coping processes in the gig economy, ultimately guiding strategies to enhance the wellbeing and performance of gig workers. Methods: A qualitative research design was used to obtain rich insights into the well-being of gig workers. A stratified random sampling strategy provided representative diversity across work categories, demographics, and geographic regions. Data were collected through structured online questionnaires distributed through LinkedIn, social media groups, and gig work platforms. The questionnaire contained validated scales assessing stress levels, financial security, work-life balance, resilience, and well-being. 400 questionnaires were distributed and 338 returned (84.5% response rate). After excluding incomplete or invalid responses, the final sample of 323 gig workers was analyzed. Statistical analysis using IBM SPSS 25.0, including correlation and regression analysis, was conducted to examine the relationships between job demands, burnout, resilience, and work engagement. Results: Correlation analysis indicated significant relationships between the most important variables. Job demands were positively correlated with job resources (r =.900, p <.01), indicating that as stressors, resource needs also increased. Burnout had significant correlations with job demands (r =.489, p <.01) and technostress (r =.804, p <.01), supporting the negative effect of workload unpredictability. Regression analysis showed that job demands strongly predicted burnout (β = 0.489, R² = 0.239, p <.000), whereas job resources positively affected work engagement (β = 0.415, R² = 0.172, p <.000). Gig-specific factors also significantly contributed to the formation of job performance (β = 0.368, R² = 0.135, p <.000). In addition, technostress strongly raised levels of burnout (β = 0.476, R² = 0.227, p <.000), whereas resilience helped job performance to the extent of β = 0.499, R² = 0.289, p <.000, highlighting its significance when managing stress. Conclusions: The results highlight the intricate interaction between job demands, resilience, and performance in the gig economy. Digital stressors and high job demands are sources of burnout, which is detrimental to well-being. Nevertheless, job resources such as autonomy, skill development, and social support improve work engagement and reduce stress. The GWW Model highlights the importance of resilience in mediating stress outcomes and proposes that interventions like boundary management, adaptive coping, and financial security programs can enhance mental health and performance. Policy measures should aim to augment gig workers' access to social security, training, and mental health care. By building resilience, gig platforms can establish a more sustainable and supportive work culture, guaranteeing long-term well-being and productivity.

Total birth rates have fallen dramatically in many European countries during the last 40 years. Job and income instability caused by labor market polarization are significant drivers of declining birth rates because employment certainty and stability are crucial to childbirth planning among young adults. This article investigates the impact of job instability on the fertility intentions of young adults in Europe, focusing on employment protection legislation (EPL) in European countries. I use data from twenty-seven countries that participated in the European Social Survey in 2004 and 2010 to show that job instability measured as temporary employment, informal work, and unemployment decreases fertility intentions among European youth regardless of the EPL in the country. Unemployed young adults tend to plan less for having their first child in the countries with high EPL. Contrary to the hypotheses, multilevel modeling showed that young people in temporary or informal employment in countries with low EPL show decreases in their fertility intentions.

Analysis of Temporary Employment Company Business Environment

This study describes different uncertain, insecure, and unstable working arrangements experienced by workers in Sri Lanka. Findings show that most informal sector workers experience precarious employment. The main types of precarious workers are temporary or contractual workers who work in the formal sector. Faced with competition, and in their attempts to cut costs and increase productivity, employers pressure workers to produce better goods, faster. Also, to adjust the workforce to meet the fluctuating demand in the market at lower cost, workers are given temporary or contractual contracts, so that their work is easily discontinued. The insecurities and instabilities of these workers come from several sources. First, they are deprived of some of the protection afforded by labor legislation because they do not have a permanent contract, and they have to constantly look for alternative work. Second, the intense nature of the work they are exposed to can increase their risks to different adverse health conditions. Poor health and lack of a permanent job can adversely affect their income-earning potential. Third, being temporary workers, they have fewer interactions with labor unions. Better information on the size and trends in precarious employment needs to be systematically collected so that policy makers will be better informed of the issues relating to precarious work in Sri Lanka and can initiate informed initiatives to improve the situation.

1. Temporary Work, Agencies and Unfree Labour: Insecurity in the New World of Work Kendra Strauss and Judy Fudge 2. Selling Flexibility: Temporary Staffing in a Volatile Economy Nik Theodore and Jamie Peck 3. Power Politics and Precariousness: The Regulation of Temporary Agency Work in the European Union Michael Wynn 4. Placing Filipino Caregivers in Canadian Homes: Regulating Transnational Employment Agencies in British Columbia Judy Fudge and Daniel Parrott 5. The Creation of Distinctive National Temporary Staffing Markets Neil M. Coe and Kevin Ward 6. The Persistence of Unfree Labour: The Rise of Temporary Employment Agencies in South Africa and Namibia Paul Benjamin 7. Temporary Work in China: Precarity in an Emerging Labour Market Feng Xu 8. Unfree Labour and the Regulation of Temporary Agency Work in the UK Kendra Strauss 9. Leased Labour and the Erosion of Workers' Protection: The Boundaries of the Regulation of Temporary Employment Agencies in Quebec Stephanie Bernstein and Guylaine Vallee

The synchronisation of app-based technology along with excess usage of smartphones has led to the unprecedented growth of the gig economy in India. However, despite the gig economy’s potential benefits, gig workers, whether employed or self-employed, working online or in situ, have less coverage of social security schemes compared to other workers. The COVID-19 crisis further exposed the vulnerable position of such gig workers. It highlighted the need to redress social security measures, benefits, and protection concerning such gig workers based in India. This chapter attempts to address how gig workers in India can be assured sustainable and adequate social security protection through comparative study, their existing policy/legal framework and judicial pronouncements. Based on comparative analysis, the chapter suggests possible interventions for ensuring gig workers’ rights, decent work, and productive employment, encouraging fair competition, and promoting an efficient Indian labour market.

Perceived employability (PE) has been advanced as the upcoming resource for career development, particularly for temporary workers. The question is how temporary workers become employable. Our hypothesis is that temporary workers more than permanent workers use impression management to become employable, both on the internal and the external labor market. This hypothesis was tested with a sample of 371 Belgian temporary and permanent workers from the educational sector and using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results suggest that (a) temporary workers were more likely than permanent workers to use impression management; (b) impression management related positively to the worker’s perception of being employable, both on the internal and the external labor market, which; (c) in turn, related to the perception of availability of better job opportunities. That is to say, impression management is an important mechanism available to temporary workers to first secure their labor market position and then for career advancement.

Whether identical workers are treated homogeneously in different sectors indicates how segmented labor markets are. In this study, we test for segmentation in the Indian labor market by using unit‐level data from two rounds of nationally representative data each round comprising of nearly half a million individuals for the period 2004–2005 and 2011–2012. We use the finite mixture model (FMM) estimation and correct for selection bias to find the existence of two segments of considerable size in informal sector. We identify statistically different latent segments without a priori definition of the segments. Workers in the upper segment of informal employment receive higher returns to education and skills relative to those in the lower segment. Women earn less than men in both segments of informal and formal employment. The gender–wage disparity, however, is less pronounced in the lower segment of informal employment. Furthermore, we estimate the size of involuntary informal employment to be more than 40% of the entire informal employment. Our findings on unobserved heterogeneity suggest the need to rethink about binaries in the labor market as ideas of formal and informal employment lose relevance when multiple latent segments coexist. The study has potential implications for design of labor policies, skilli development programs, and labor legislation.

In order to deepen and broaden understanding on the occupational safety and health disparities between temporary and non-temporary workers, psychological and perceptual gaps between the two groups need to be carefully investigated, particularly in relation to risk taking behaviors. To this end, the present study showed the precarious nature of temporary employment in terms of perceived job security and perceived job control. Although the present study showed that risk perception is not significantly different across the temporary and non-temporary worker groups, temporary workers tended to perceive higher monetary benefits from potentially hazardous working opportunities and reported greater willingness to undertake the working opportunities than non-temporary workers. Temporary workers may be more likely to view the working opportunities in hazardous occupational settings as risks that are worthy to take. These findings need to be incorporated in the safety management of temporary workers to promote self-regulatory engagement in safer and healthier behaviors.

Reports that emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs) experienced a decline in informality over two decades before the COVID-19 pandemic. Output informality declined most in East Asia and Pacific and South Asia, while employment informality fell most in the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet the incidence of informality remains high in all regions. In South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, pervasive informality has associated with low human capital and large agricultural sectors. In Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Middle East and North Africa, heavy regulatory and tax burdens and weak institutions have proven important factors. In addition, legacies of the transition from central planning to market economies and disruptions related to conflict remain important. In East Asia and Pacific, employment informality associates with lagging social protection in cities following large-scale rural-to-urban migration. A balanced policy mix tailored to economy-specific circumstances can help mitigate the adverse effects of informality.