The Study of Groundwater in the Zhambyl Region, Southern Kazakhstan, to Improve Sustainability

One of the most extensive natural plague centers, or foci, is located in Central Asia, in particular, the Zhambyl region in Southern Kazakhstan. Here, we conducted plague surveillance from 2000 to 2020 in the Zhambyl region in Kazakhstan and confirmed 3,072 cases of infected wild animals. We used Species Distribution Modeling by employing MaxEnt, and identified that the natural plague foci are primarily located in the Moiynqum, Betpaqdala, and Tauqum Deserts. The Zhambyl region's central part, including the Moiynqum and Sarysu districts, has a high potential risk of plague outbreak for the rural towns and villages. Since the phenomenon of climate change has been identified as a determinant that affects the rodent populations, thereby elevating the likelihood of an outbreak of plague, we investigated the potential dissemination routes of the disease under the changing climate conditions, thus creating Species Distribution Forecasts for the rodent species in southern part of Kazakhstan for the year 2100. By 2100, in case of increasing temperatures, the range of host species is likely to expand, leading to a higher risk of plague outbreaks. The highest risk of disease transmission can be expected at the outer limits of the modeled total distribution range, where infection rates are high, but antibody presence is low, making many species susceptible to the pathogen. To mitigate the risk of a potential plague outbreak, it is necessary to implement appropriate sanitary‐epidemiological measures and climate mitigation policies.

In the context of global warming, the strength and frequency of drought events are projected to grow in the future, and the onset of drought can have dramatic effects on vegetation growth in terrestrial ecosystems. Central Asia is the largest non-territorial drought area in the world, and the response of vegetation to drought events is extremely sensitive in the area. However, few studies have quantified and compared the vegetation gross primary productivity (GPP) response to the lagged and cumulative effects of drought. In this research, the solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence GPP and Standardized Precipitation Evaporation Index (SPEI) were used to analyze the time and space patterns of vegetation GPP and the SPEI in Central Asia and to quantify and compare the lagged and cumulative effects of drought on the GPP of various vegetation types. During the period from 2000 to 2018, the general trends of vegetation GPP showed a slight increase in Central Asia, with the ratio of variation being 1.35 g C m−2 y−1 and a spatially decreasing distribution from north to south. SPEI showed a trend of decreasing and then increasing over a period of 19 years, with a slight decreasing (drying) trend and a rate of change of −0.02 y−1, and the overall spatial pattern was drying out from north to south. In 13 months, 72.44% of regional droughts had lagged impacts on vegetation. The maximum correlation coefficients of vegetation and the lagged effectiveness of drought were concentrated in the range of 0.15–0.35, and the high correlation was distributed in southern and northwestern Kazakhstan, which are prairie regions. Of the regions in Central Asia, 75.86% showed cumulative drought effects concentrated at 9–12 months. The maximum correlation coefficients were concentrated in the range of 0.20–0.50, and the high correlation regions were primarily situated in south Kazakhstan and east Uzbekistan. Comparing the correlation coefficients of the lagged effect of vegetation GPP and SPEI with the cumulative effect shows that the cumulative rather than lagged impacts of drought on vegetation cover were found in 86.75% of the regions in Central Asia. This research enhances our comprehension of the influence of drought events on ecosystems in arid regions and has a certain reference value for helping arid region ecosystems to cope with global climate change.

The article looks at regional segment in the demographic processes in Kazakhstan during the decade of 1999-2009. The author uses method of cluster analysis to study demographic zones that includes specific weights of: a) Russian and Kazakh population in the total structure of the population, b) urban population in the total structure of population, c) people over 65, d) women of fertile age between 15 and 44, e) cumulative rate of natality, f) general mortality rate, g) rate of natural increase and h) crude marriage and divorce. These criteria enabled to distinguish several clusters using the concept of ‘ethnic and demographic area’ denoting a territory with relatively homogenous demography. Five clusters described comprise 1) Mangystau region, 2) region that includes East and North Kazakhstan with Akmola and Kokshetau, 3) South Kazakhstan with Atyrau and Kyzylorda, 4) Karaganda and Pavlodar regions (oblasts), 5) Aktobe, Almaty, Zhambyl and Western Kazakhstan region. Analysis of these areas made it possible to reveal their specific features. Differences between regions turned out to be substantial. While demographic situation in Mangystau and South Kazakhstan with Akmola and Kokshetau was favorable, demographic trends were negative in Eastern, Northern Kazakhstan and Akmola and Kokshetau regions as well as Karaganda and Pavlodar regions. Demographic trends in Aktobe, Almaty, Zhambyl regions and Western Kazakhstan can be characterized as transitional one from negative to positive extremes revealed between other two groups of clusters. The study of fertility in various regions of Kazakhstan allowed distinguishing two periods the first one being the 1989-1999s, when fertility declined dramatically and the period of its rise during the 1999-2009s. The article also discusses regional particularities of morality and reproduction in Kazakhstan, which are also determined by ethnic composition of these regions.

Nowadays, the ecological tourism sector is promoting effective development on the economy. Today, ecological tourism is one of the areas of modern tourism and it has spread throughout the world in the last decades. Kazakhstan has are great opportunities for development of ecological tourism. The basis of its numerous natural, historical monuments, unique natural conditions and landscapes in the heart of Eurasia. Evidence of ecotourism is known, that is, the interest of Organization of the United Nations, the world wildlife Fund, international Union for conservation of nature and natural resources to the ecotourism further development in the further development of eco-tourism. The result of the study and questionnaires which were conducted in the countries Germany, UK, France, South Korea and Japan have determined a high interest of foreign citizens to ecological tour in Kazakhstan. Our country looking for ways to develop tourism destinations in the practice of foreign countries, as their countries above us in this field. South Kazakhstan is the most beautiful and largest region in the country. It is different with a rich very cultural heritage, warm weather and natural scenery. The work purpose: study problems of effective use of recreational resources and development of ecological tourism in southern Kazakhstan. Duties of work: historical aspects recreational resource and consideration theoretical foundations in development of ecological tourism. The article is devoted to the features of the development of ecological tourism in the South Kazakhstan Region. Prerequisites of its development were formulated in the region, difficulties of the development of ecotourism were characterized and possible ways to overcome them were considered. The current state of touristic recreational ecological potential of South Kazakhstan is being analyzed. The basic tendencies of development of the tourism industry were investigated, that ecotourism can be seen precisely the balance, which can provide jobs and stable high incomes and save intact wildlife. In regions such as the South Kazakhstan, ecotourism can help nature protection, growth of employment and socio-economic development. The conclusions about the perspectives of the ecological tourism in protected areas were made. &nbsp

During two surveys of beet root crops in South Kazakhstan and Central Asia conducted in 1988 and 1989, 465 of 990 samples were found to contain beet mosaic virus (BMV) by double-antibody sandwich (DAS) ELISA. BMV infection was widely scattered in the area surveyed, and its incidence varied considerably, reaching 100% in some fields adjacent to beet seed crops. BMV isolates from Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Uzbekistan and Ukraine were found to be serologically closely related in DAS-ELISA test. Beet yellows virus (BYV) was not detected in any location surveyed in South Kazakhstan and Central Asia. BYV spread into the area is probably prevented by its geographical isolation.

<p>The first regional studies related to the study of the stable isotopic composition of groundwater in the territory of Kazakhstan were carried out in the 80s of the last century. Some basic regional regularities in the zoning of deep confined waters according to their isotopic composition were identified. The results of the research revealed, in general, the similarity in the genesis of deep pressure waters of the artesian basins of South Kazakhstan with the waters of the Neogene-Quaternary age. It has been established that the formation of groundwater reserves in deep confining aquifers occurred during the last Pleistocene glaciation. The influence of pluvial epochs on the replenishment of groundwater reserves in arid regions is confirmed by isotope studies in the modern deserts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Central Asia.</p> <p>In recent years, additional regional studies of the stable isotopic composition of deep confined waters of sedimentary basins in South Kazakhstan have been carried out. Groundwater samples were taken in the course of expeditionary research. The ratios of the stable isotopes <sup>2</sup>Н/<sup>1</sup>H и <sup>18</sup>O/<sup>16</sup>O were measured on a highly sensitive LGR 912-0008 laser spectrometer. Water samples calibrated against the International Standard: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) were used as internal standards, this standard was promulgated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The measurement accuracy of <sup>2</sup>Н и <sup>18</sup>O  was  ± 1 ‰ и 0,5 ‰, respectively. To assess the degree of non-uniformity of the processes of the genesis of deep confined waters, the coefficients of the deuterium kurtosis were calculated. The research results showed that the artesian waters of the sedimentary basins were formed mainly due to meteoric waters.</p>

Currently, Central Asia and the Caspian region are experiencing a boom in geopolitical interest from major external players for the second time since gaining independence. In the 90s of the last century, the main area of interest was natural resources, primarily oil and gas, the reserves of which in the region are significant by world standards. The current rapid growth in the activity of major players is concentrated in the transport sector. Difficulties in maritime transportation due to security and environmental issues, and increasing tensions between Russia and the West are pushing for the development of alternative land routes, primarily in Eurasia. This leads to a huge interest in the development of transport corridors through Central Asia and the Caspian Sea, while logistics projects are usually considered by initiators and major players as a tool to strengthen their influence in the region.

The Caspian Sea has traditionally been the center of conflicting geopolitical interests of both regional and non-regional powers. The struggle for influence in the Caspian Sea region has its historical counterpart. In the early eighteenth century, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and weakened Persia vied with each other for influence on the Caspian Sea. The mentioned process can be compared to the events caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of the twentieth century. The activity of the world's leading states in Central Asia and the Caspian region is manifested in various forms, in particular - diplomatic, economic, military, and finally, it reflects the main geopolitical reality, the growing rivalry for energy resources. The region has geostrategic importance and plays the role of a bridge in the supply of energy carriers between East and West. Thus, finding an optimal transit route for oil and natural gas is one of the main concerns facing the states of the Caspian region. After the Cold War, the struggle for resources in the region is one of the most important geopolitical events. In today's international system, energy carriers, are the most important factor, contributing to security, but at the same time creating regional and international conflicts. The increased demand for energy carriers in the world leads to the active involvement of external forces in the ongoing processes in the region, often geopolitically opposed parties. The Caspian Sea and the Central Asian region are important not only for energy resources, trade and economic opportunities but also for geopolitical security and ancient cultural and civilizational importance. Considering the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of the region, special attention is paid to issues of security both in the Caspian Sea basin region and beyond. The region's energy reserves, trade and transport corridors influence regional and trans-regional actors in the field of stability and security. All countries bordering the Caspian Sea are rich in hydrocarbons, which is why energy plays an important role in the region's geopolitics. According to H. Morgenthau, the main component of power is natural resources, which are divided into food and raw materials. H. Morgenthau believes that after the First World War, oil became an industrial and military source of energy. According to him, the need for oil reserves changed the importance of the power of the great powers. Great powers try to control these oil reserves and deprive their competitors of access to them, thus shifting the distribution of power in their favor. In addition to the five littoral states of the Caspian Sea, other regional and global states (USA, Europe, China) are also interested in being represented in the region to protect their interests using political, and economic means. The main goal of the research is to determine the influence of regional and global players on the balance of power in the Caspian region after the collapse of the Soviet Union and to determine their role and positions in the search for alternative ways to transport energy resources.

شناخت شرایط همدیدی و دینامیکی الگوهای گردش جو جهت تحلیل و شناسایی عوامل مؤثر بر وقوع بارش‌ حائز اهمیت است. هدف پژوهش حاضر، شناخت الگوهای بارش حدی بهاره در ارتباط با کمیت‌های دینامیکی طی دوره 50 ساله (2010-1961) در سواحل جنوبی دریای خزر می‌باشد. بدین منظور، داده‌های روزانه ارتفاع ژئوپتانسیل، مؤلفه مداری(u) و نصف‌النهاری(v) باد، نم ویژه و سرعت قائم مرکزملی پیش بینی محیطی و پژوهش جوّی آمریکا با تفکیک مکانی 5/2 درجه استفاده گردید. در ادامه کمیت‌های دینامیکی: تاوایی نسبی، نمودار هاو‌مولر تاوایی، سرعت قائم، میدان‌های باد واگرایی - همگرایی و نیمرخ قائم تعیین گردید. نتایج نشان داد، بارش های حدی بهاره سواحل جنوبی دریای خزر از 4 الگوی دینامیکی تبعیت می‌کنند. الگوی اول، سامانه بندالی امگایی واقع در شرق اروپا و کوه های اورال- الگوی دوم، سیکلون های مدیترانه‌ای -الگوی سوم، سامانه‌ بندالی شکل گرفته بر روی سیبری و آسیای میانه و الگوی چهارم، شگل‌گیری سامانه بندالی عامل اصلی بارش بهاره در سواحل جنوبی دریای خزر می باشند. این الگو تا حدودی شبیه به الگوی اول بوده با این تفاوت که، گسترش پرفشار جنب حاره به سمت شمال در فصل بهار غیرعادی است. بررسی کمیت‌های دینامیکی طی فعالیت سامانه ها نشان دهنده سرعت قائم منفی جو، تاوایی مثبت و منطقه همگرایی بر روی سواحل خزر می باشد. مجموعه این عوامل حاکی از وجود شرایط مناسب برای صعود دینامیکی هوای جو منطقه و صعود سریع ذرات به سطوح میانی و فوقانی جو بوده که ریزش‌های سنگین بهاره را موجب می شود.

In November 1929, soon after the November Plenum and the announcement of mass collectivization, Stalin received a letter from a young Kyrgyz official named Iusup Abdrakhmanov. Then 28 years old, Abdrakhmanov was the chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR). Located just south of Kazakhstan on the Chinese border, the Kyrgyz ASSR was then a small region in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), having come into existence just a few years before in the course of Central Asia's so-called delimitation. Like officials in many distant regions of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan's leaders, including Abdrakhmanov, struggled to advance the interests of this little-known territory. In his letter, Abdrakhmanov pushed for greater local control over economic matters. He argued that Kyrgyzstan's triple subjugation (troinaia podchinennost')--to the USSR, the RSFSR, and various regional organs in Central Asia--had retarded the territory's development by requiring that its leaders coordinate their policies among three centers, none of which understood local economic and social realities. In particular, the state's privileging of grain production (the occupation of Kyrgyzstan's predominantly Slavic settler population) over livestock production (the sector in which most ethnic Kyrgyz were engaged) favored the settler minority over the indigenous majority and threatened to perpetuate and even exacerbate the economic inequalities of the tsarist colonial era. (1) Abdrakhmanov contended that this disparity contradicted stated Soviet efforts to liquidate the real economic inequality between the backward regions of the Soviet Union and its more advanced ones, thereby distorting the Party's policy. (2) Policies disadvantageous to the Kyrgyz population even had international implications, as the failure of Soviet Kyrgyzstan to catch up with the other parts of the Soviet Union would make a bad impression on the Kyrgyz population living over the border in China. solution to these problems, Abdrakhmanov concluded, lay ultimately in transforming the Kyrgyz ASSR into a union republic: The national makeup of the population (70 percent Kyrgyz), its foreign policy significance, and the economic possibilities of Kyrgyzstan [all] point to this [conclusion], he wrote. (3) In this letter, Abdrakhmanov demonstrated a bureaucrat's knack for aligning his own ambitions (Kyrgyzstan's transformation into a union republic, presumably with Abdrakhmanov in a key post) with the policy goals of the party-state (increasing the production of key commodities and attracting the population of neighboring countries). But he also pointed to an essential feature of Soviet rule in Central Asia: the frequent contradiction between the Soviet Union's plans for economic development of the country as a whole and its stated goal of promoting the interests of formerly marginalized ethnic groups. As Abdrakhmanov's example of grain production showed, these two priorities frequently worked at cross purposes. In particular, he warned that the Kyrgyz ASSR would slip into a state of economic backwardness if its predominantly Kyrgyz local administration were not granted more control over economic policy and, specifically, more discretion in making agricultural investments. (4) This tendency was not unique to Kyrgyzstan: throughout the Soviet East, Bolshevik goals of social equality and economic advancement--indeed, a complete decolonization--for disadvantaged ethnic minorities frequently clashed with the economic and political priorities of central institutions in Moscow. (5) As Abdrakhmanov demonstrates in his appeal to Stalin, construction, which aimed to develop a socialist economy in a unified state under a strong central government, and nationality policy, which strove to promote the development of every minority ethnic group, contradicted each other all too often. …

Studying the density of both the crust and mantle is one of the topical problems in modern geophysics. Gravity modeling in combination with seismic tomography is an important tool for detecting density inhomogeneities in the crust and mantle, which can cause stresses and thus significantly impact the regional tectonics [Pogorelov, Baranov, 2010], especially in zones wherein continental margins actively interact with subducting oceanic plates and the entire depth of the tectonosphere is subject to stresses. Associated processes lead to considerable horizontal and vertical stresses that often cause catastrophic events on a global scale. The challenge of studying the global tectonic processes in the Earth’s tectonosphere can be addressed by gravity modeling in combination with seismic surveying.Data from previous studies. I.L. Nersesov et al. [1975] pioneered in calculating the spatial pattern of mantle density inhomogeneities in Central Asia. Although the accuracy of their estimations was not high due to the limited database, their study yielded significant results considering the structure of the crust. Numerous subsequent geophysical projects have researched the crust to a level sufficient to develop regional models, that can give quite adequate information on the depths of external and internal boundaries of the crust and suggest the distribution patterns of seismic velocities and density values. With reference to such data, mantle density inhomogeneities can be studied with higher accuracy.This paper reports on the estimations of gravity anomalies in the crust and upper mantle in Central and South Asia. The study region represents the full range of crust thicknesses and ages, as well a variety of crust formation types [Christensen, Mooney, 1995]. We used the 3D gravity modeling software package 3SGravity developed by Senachin [2015a, 2015b] that considers the spherical shape of the Earth's surface, and estimated gravitional anomalies using Baranov’s digital model of the crust, AsCrust [Baranov, 2010].The study area includes the Alpine-Himalayan folded belt, the triple junction of rift zones in North Africa, and the marginal seas of Southeast Asia, which are framed by deep troughs with associated volcanic belts. Its relief ranges from the highest mountains in Himalayas to deepest troughs in Indonesia. In this region, the collision of the Indian and Asian plates causes thrusting at the Asian plate margin which results in thickening of the continental crust [Oreshin et al., 2011]. This process may be accompanied by the separation of the crustal layer of the Indian lithospheric plate from its mantle ‘cushion’, i.e. delamination, the mechanism of which is not fully understood [Jiménez-Munt et al., 2008; Krystopowicz, Currie, 2013; Ueda et al., 2012] (Fig. 1).AsCrust, the digital model of the Earth's crust: depth to Moho map. A large volume of new data on reflection, refraction and surface waves from earthquakes and explosions was analyzed and integrated into the AsCrust model (1×1° grid). Ten digital maps were constructed: Moho depth, the upper, middle and lower crustal layers, as well as Vp velocities and densities in these layers [Baranov, 2010]. In our study, we calculated gravitational anomalies from the values of thicknesses and density of crustal layers at each point of the grid. The density in the layers was calculated from longitudinal wave velocities using the formula described in [Brocher, 2005] (Fig. 2).The algorithm for gravity anomaly calculations. Modeling the gravity of large regional objects needs to take into account the curvature of the Earth's surface. Algorithms for calculating the gravity field from bodies bounded by spherical surfaces are proposed in [e.g. Kosygin et al., 1996; Starostenko et al., 1986; Strakhov et al., 1989; Jones et al., 2010; Li et al., 2011; Schmidt et al., 2007]. In this study, we used an algorithm based on equations for direct calculations of the gravity effect, which can be obtained for specific points located on the pole of the sphere. Such equations considerably simplify the algorithm, but require constant recalculation of the coordinate system for each calculation point, which complicates the task (Fig. 3).Source data, and methods of gravity anomaly calculations. Our computational model includes seven layers: an water layer, three sedimental layers (depths of boundaries, and density values of the sedimental layers) from the model described in [Laske, Masters, 1997], and three crustal layers (depths of boundaries, and density values of the crust, which were estimated from velocities Vp) from the AsCrust model [Baranov, 2010], considering the territory covered by the model. For the surrounding regions, data on the structure and properties of the crust were taken from the CRUST 2.0 model [Bassin et al., 2000] and interpolated to the 1´1° grid. Thus, data with the resolution of 1´1° were used to describe the sediments and the crust, and data with the resolution of 0.1´0.1° characterized the water layer (batimetry).Model GGM01 based on satellite observation data of the GRACE project (http://www.csr.utexas.edu) simulated the Earth's gravity field and was used to calculate anomalies in ‘free’ air across the entire surface of our model, which took into account the correction for the elevation of an observation object. The gravity field ranges from –250 to +260 mGal. The zone of collision of the Indian and Asian plates is marked by narrow parallel anomalies of different signs, reaching 200 mGal and more. The southwestern zone with negative anomalies corresponds, apparently, to the boundary of the junction zone of the two plates, wherein the Indian plate subducts underneath the Asian plate, as described in [e.g. He et al., 2010; Oreshin et al., 2011]. The gravity field of the study area quite clearly shows that Tibet is separated from the Tarim plate neigbouring it in the northeast. This separation is marked by a negative anomaly to –150 mGal, the boundaries of which are outlined by narrow zones of positive anomalies. The southern Caspian Sea is also characterized by a negative anomaly to –150 mGal, while Tien Shan is marked by a narrow band of positive anomalies up to 110 mGal. In most of the study area, the field is close to normal and varies within a few dozens of milligals. Moderately positive gravity (within 40¸80 mGal) is typical of the rest of the Alpine-Himalayan folded belt. A slight positive gravity field is revealed in the marginal seas of Southeast Asia, wherein there are two narrow zones of high-amplitude anomalies of different signs (up to 200 mGal), which are generated by isostatically uncompensated systems of island arcs and trenches (Fig. 6).The gravity effect of the Earth's crust estimated for Asia shows the presence of major anomalies varying in the range of 940 mGal (from –380 to +560 mGal). The maximum positive anomaly is located in the vicinity of the African triple junction of the rift zones, wherein the anomaly reaches a positive maximum of about +560 mGal. Positive anomalies are also revealed in the Tarim Basin (+130 mGal), Southeastern China (+100 mGal), the Iranian plateau (+180 mGal), and back-arc subduction zones of the Indian and Pacific plates (+290 mGal). Large negative anomalies correspond to the Caspian and Black Seas (–380 mGal), Himalayas (–280 mGal), and eastern Tibet (–330 mGal). The Eastern Mediterranean is characterized by a negative anomaly (–310 mGal).The eastern Arabian Peninsula and the Mesopotamian lowlands are characterized by negative anomalies up to –220 mGal. The map of calculated crustal gravity anomalies also shows submarine ridges (+280 mGal) that trend from south to north and seem to trace ‘hot spots’ that burn through the lithospheric plate (Fig. 7).Gravitational anomalies in the mantle were calculated by subtracting the gravity effect of the crust from the observed gravity field. The anomalies range from –570 to +350 mGal, which is about twice the range of variations of this field. This directly indicates the presence of large density variations in the lithospheric mantle, which should compensate for the anomalous crustal masses. The largest positive mantle density inhomogeneities in the study region are revealed in the narrow band of the Himalayas (+330 mGal) and Eastern Tibet (+350 mGal). In the Caspian and Black Seas, the anomalies reach +250 and +300 mGal, respectively. The Eastern Mediterranean is characterized by a positive anomaly up to +280 mGal. The eastern Arabian Peninsula and the Mesopotamian lowlands are characterized by positive anomalies of up to +220 mGal. Negative anomalies are revealed in the Tarim Basin (–190 mGal), over submarine ridges in the Indian Ocean (–340 mGal), in Southeastern China (–120 mGal), the central Hindustan (–80 mGal), the Hindu Kush and Karakoram (–150 mGal). Subduction zones of the Indian and Pacific plates are also characterized by negative anomalies of up to –250 mGal. The triple junction zone (Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, the African Rift) in the northeastern African continent is the region of maximum negative anomalies in the mantle wherein gravity values are reduced to –570 mGal (Fig. 8).Results and conclusion. By applying the 3SGravity software package and the AsCrust digital model, we revealed the spatial pattern of gravitational anomalies in the crust and mantle in Central and South Asia, which gives more precise information about the variations in density with depth in the study area. Our estimations show a significant variations of mantle gravity anomalies, several times larger than the changes in the observed anomalies.

Social and political reorganization in Central Asia - transition from pre-colonial to post-colonial society, Shirin Akiner the impediments to the development of civil societies in Central Asia, Touraj Atabaki Russia and former Soviet Central Asia - the attitude towards regional integrity, Vyacheslav Ya Belokrenitsky foreign policy perspectives of the Central Asian states, Tatian Shaumian Iran and Central Asia, Tchangiz Pahlevan Turkish policy in Central Asia, Gareth M. Winrow towards better mutual comprehension among Turkic-speakers, Edward Tryjarski the politics of oil and the quest for stability - the Caspian Sea, Tadeusz Swietochowski literature and the nation in contemporary Uzbekistan, Roberta M. Micallef the assertion of Uzbek national identity - nativization or state-building process? Victoria Koroteyeva, Ekaterina Makarova language and culture in transition in Uzbekistan, Cay Dollerup Turmenistan's place in Central Asia and the world, Rainer Freitag-Wirminghaus the Hazara of Afghanistan - the thorny path towards political unity, 1978-1002, Kristian Berg Harpviken ethnic identity versus nationalism - the Uzbeks of northeastern Afghanistan and the Afghan state, Gabriele Rasuly-Paleczek Nawruz in Tajikistan - ritual or politics? Ali Attar the early 20th century Kazakh intelligentsia - in search of national identity, Gulnar Kendirbaeva ethnic religious resurgence in Xinjiang, Kulbhushan Warikoo a Central Asian-Chinese ethnic melting pot - the case of the Gansu corridor, Sabira Stalberg nations transgressing nation-state - constructing Dungan, Uygur and Kazakh identities across China, Central Asia and Turkey, Dru C. Gladney past and present of a Manchu tribe - the Sibe, Liliya Gorelova the Tuvans in China - ethnic identity and language, Mariana Mongush Central asia in the minds of the Mughals, Richard Foltz Russian slaves in 17th century Bukhara, Audrey Burton the royal clan of the Turks and the problem of its designation, Sergey, G. Kljyashtorny burial sites in Hexi, Susanne Juhl.

The Place of Kazakhstan in the Study of Central Asia Gulmira Sultangalieva (bio) Translated by Paul W. Werth Among the republics of Central Asia, Kazakhstan represents a distinct geographical, geopolitical, cultural, and historical entity.1 In the west and north, Kazakhstan constitutes a borderland belt (poias prigranich´ia) with Russia and its territories of the lower Volga, southern Urals, and Siberia. In the east, the region borders on China, while the southern and southeastern portions can be considered part of Central Asia. As a territory inhabited historically by nomads, Kazakhstan has seen its historical and cultural significance rise and fall, periodically becoming either the center or the periphery of ethno-political and ethno-cultural processes in the region. This history raises a series of questions: What place does Kazakhstan occupy in Central Asia? Has Central Asia existed as a single and coherent region? What role has the study of Central Asia and Kazakhstan played in attempts to understand the state organization, history, and culture of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union? In my view, exploration of these questions should broaden academic interest in the history of Central Asia—a history that occupies a critical place in any effort to make sense of historical processes in neighboring countries such as China, Russia, Iran, and Afghanistan. A Complex Nomenclature Any attempt to answer these questions must begin with nomenclature, which proves to be especially complicated in the case of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Indeed, considering the history of the term “Central Asia” allows us not only to see that there have been various names for the region and disagreement concerning the definition of its borders and to understand the significance [End Page 345] of Kazakhstan within a broader regional system.2 Such a consideration also shows that the meaning of “Central Asia” has changed over time, depending on such factors as the political context, the attitude of authors to particular geographical and historical phenomena, and so on. The term “Central Asia” first became a part of geographical and historical scholarship in the 19th century, thanks to the German natural scientist Alexander von Humboldt.3 Although his travels in the Russian Empire included only the middle and southern Urals, the Altai, the Volga delta around Astrakhan, and the nearby Kazakh steppe, Humboldt nonetheless defined the boundaries of the entire region, characterizing it as an internal space of the Asian continent extending from the Caspian Sea in the west to an indefinite border in the east. The German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen offered a more exact definition of “Central Asia” while dividing the region into two parts. “Central Asia” proper, according to Richthofen, encompassed the space from Tibet in the south to the Altai in the north, and from the Pamir Mountains in the west to the Khingan range in the east.4 Richthofen described the lowlands between the Aral and Caspian Seas—which in the 18th and 19th centuries were dominated economically and culturally by Kazakhs of the tribal confederation of the Alimuli of the Little Horde—as a transitional zone.5 The intermediate space of the Kazakh steppe that Richthofen identified reveals a distinct geopolitical feature of Kazakhstan, which linked different parts of Central Asia into a regional system. For similar reasons, one may suppose, Russian researchers of the first half of the 19th century characterized the territories of the Little and Middle Hordes (the northern, western, and central parts of Kazakhstan) as the “Kirgiz-Kazak hordes and steppes” (kirgiz-kaisatskie ordy i stepi) but regarded the southern portions of the Kazakh steppe, controlled by the khanates of Kokand and Khiva and the emirate of Bukhara, as part of “Middle Asia.”6 It is significant that [End Page 346] whereas in the first half of the 19th century the term “Kirgiz steppe” was used with the qualifiers “of western Siberia” or “under the jurisdiction of Orenburg,” from 1882 on, Russian authorities used the more encompassing toponym the “Steppe,” once they had created the Steppe General-Governorship (Stepnoe general-gubernatorstvo) and decisively separated the northern, western, and eastern parts of the steppe zone of Kazakhstan from the southern portions. This kind of territorial division reflected the fact that the steppe transcended the...

The fall of the former Soviet Union led to the disintegration of the republics and the formation of new republics on the international scene, especially those in Cen-tral Asia. This study aims at showing the advantages of the Caspian Sea in the Central Asian countries and the factors that contribute to its importance of sus-tainability in geographically and strategically plans. The methodology used in this study is qualitative, based on other studies, books, and articles. The results show that the Caspian Sea is targeted by many countries because of its great importance to Central Asian countries due to the number of natural resources and reserves therein, and the availability of natural gas and oil on its territory. On the other hand, the Caspian Region has much Geo-Strategic Importance point includes geopolitical significance because it is located at the in-tersection, which connected the Middle East, Central Asia, Europe, and the Cauca-sus, it is the only waterway for the new republics of Central Asia, also it is an im-portant source that provides food. however, all global small and big power has the objectives of controlling and exporting Caspian energy resources. Additionally, the Caspian Sea Region is useful for the united states plans to contain Iran or Russia and to diversify sources of gas and oil in order to limit the reliance on the Middle East. Although the "Aktau Summit" ended the dialectic of (the sea and the lake) and drew a new pattern of cooperation between the riparian states, it remains in front of two different paths. The first: is to encourage cooperation between the five countries, whether political or economic, and this is in light of the joint concern for the benefits resulting from cooperate. The second is the lack of benefit for this agreement in the basis and principle, and this may happen if the neighbouring countries disagree on the division of oil wealth among them, which is what many observers believe, in addition to the fact that the onslaughts on the extension of energy pipelines to Europe may push countries to Intensity in competition and from there the agreement may turn into a conflict that may cause a "cata-strophic" for the entire region. Hence, it can be said that the "Aktau Peak" may be a movement towards the front or just a move around. Just as the seriousness of the political equilibrium between the countries of the re-gion, its is extremely unfortunate to know that the "Aktau Summit" did not ad-dress the issue of protecting the vital environment of the Caspian Sea and its di-versity, and this serious issue has not received the necessary international attention so far.

Introduction. Factors of nature and climate were analyzed using bioclimatic criteria of environmental assessments made in within the framework of urban planning during warm seasons. Territories of republics, located in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan, were considered as southern specimen areas; they have both plain and complex mountainous terrains, and their climatic and bioclimatic conditions make them similar to equatorial countries. The author chose a method for assessing bioclimatic indices; they take into account the response of the thermal status of a person to the environment, which is a rele­vant task of architectural and structural design and area-wide planning in southern countries with hot climates.
 Materials and methods. This research project is based on a comprehensive methodology for studying, analyzing and summarizing meteorological factors, provided by local meteorological stations, and reference data from the leading research institutes of hydrometeorology. These data are further processed by the software package to identify specific small and large microclimatic and bioclimatic differences between large areas. The methodology also determines the degree of comfort of a thermal state of a person in urban bioclimatology.
 Results. A new area of research was identified to study the response of the thermal state of a person to the environment: the bio-climatological assessment of environments. Bioclimatic zoning of republics in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan was performed to classify the bioclimatic conditions in these environments according to their livability, taking into account values of meteorological indices during warm seasons. Bioclimatic differences between territories, cities, and excerpts from area development documents were identified for the purpose of bioclimatic zoning and division into districts. Maps of districts were designed to make bioclimatic forecasts of territories for the purpose of architectural and structural design, as well as urban planning.
 Conclusions. The research is relevant for territories and cities with hot climates. Methodological fundamentals of bioclimatic zoning in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan, coupled with classified bio-meteorological indices, will serve as a prere­quisite for purposeful and rational use of territories in the region; they will allow evaluating its recreational potential and planning the construction of residential complexes, public and industrial buildings and structures that ensure maximum comfort and convenience at minimum costs. The classification of bioclimates is presented; it is based on thermal characteristics of climates as well as responses from the human thermoregulatory system during excessively hot summer periods. These responses are needed to characterize the thermal state of a person during periods of greatest heat stresses and radiation loads.