The structure of multiple free associations to words, black-and-white pictures, and color pictures

Abstract

A considerable amount of the effort of media researchers has been directed to the comparison of the effects on learning of different ways of presenting information, such as color pictures, black-and-white pictures, and words. This research has provided valuable information about the relationships between different types of stimulus material and the processing and retention of information (Paivio, Rogers, & Smythe, 1968; Paivio, 1969, 1974), recognition (Jenkins, Neale, & Deno, 1967), paired-associate learning, (Paivio & Yarmey, 1966; Wicker, 1970b) and other cognitive activities. In general these studies have two characteristics: they are experiments carefully designed to control all but a few central variables; they are concerned with the learning process. In recent literature, however, it has been suggested that research can become more representative of real-world settings by relaxing some experimental control and allowing variables