Abstract
Grades are important. Student motivation can be influenced by grades (Evans 1976, pp. 40-44). Schools use them a basis for promotion, transfer, selection for honors, placement on probation, graduation, etc. (Terwilliger 1971, p. 8). They determine access to training for prestigious professions (Collins 1979, pp. 19-21). Since early in the century, however, scholars have questioned the validity of grades (an annotated bibliography is provided by Kirschenbaum, Napier, and Simon 1971, Appendix A). Their concern centers largely on whether grades reflect student achievement, or other factors which bias teachers' evaluations by creating self-fulfilling expectations. Subjective elements believed to serve as threats to
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