Abstract
This dissertation analyzes depictions of effeminacy and anxiety surrounding masculinity in early modern drama. Effeminacy is a frequently used term in the literature of the period, occurring seven times in Shakespeare alone. For my research, I combine literary analysis and performance criticism. I consulted the National Theatre Archives in London and the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in Stratford to analyze performances of early modern plays. Effeminacy is a wide-reaching mode of being that makes several layers of meaning. For royals and men of rank, the presumption of effeminacy is a danger to the realm. In Roman historical drama, effeminacy stands in for the decay of the state of Rome, as well as offering implications for the early modern era in which the plays were written. But for youths and in comedy, effeminacy can be an anxiety-provoking but not always harmful phase that leads men from immaturity to maturity. Chapter One analyzes early modern conduct books in conjunction with Sir Philip Sidney’s The Old Arcadia. This chapter provides an overview of the standards of masculine behavior expected for noblemen. Chapter Two moves to a discussion of Renaissance appropriations of Roman history, with an analysis of William Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra and Ben Jonson’s Sejanus His Fall. It builds on the discussion of gender expectations. Chapter Three continues the evaluation of historical drama by examining two English history plays, Shakespeare’s Richard II and Christopher Marlowe’s Edward II. By analyzing two English kings often described as effeminate, I interrogate the role of effeminacy in Renaissance audiences’ relationship to the monarchy. Finally, I consider what happens when effeminacy is played for laughs. In Chapter Four, I discuss two Shakespearean comedies, Love’s Labour’s Lost and As You Like It. I analyze the subjugation and humiliation of the male characters in these plays and discover how effeminacy can play a role in shaping adult male sexuality.
Highlights
Chapter 1: A Pastoral Excursion: Courtiers and Sidney’s The Old Arcadia How did noblemen in the early modern era go about the business of being a courtier? What resources were available for them to learn the standards of thought, speech, and behavior expected of them? How were the boundaries of masculinity defined and what were the consequences of transgressing those boundaries? When are behaviors defined as effeminate? what were noblemen asked to do with ungovernable emotions? In this chapter, I will discuss how patterns of success were laid for aspiring noblemen and how they were instructed to avoid effeminate behavior
Arcadia’s treatment of effeminate behavior lies midway between the humorous humiliation that leads to a mature masculinity in the comedies and the disastrous excesses that lead to destruction in the Roman tragedies and English history plays
By studying the conduct literature and Arcadia together, a picture of the treatment of effeminacy in early modern drama becomes clear and this picture informs the discussion of dramatic literature in this study
Summary
Henry IV that has always followed me. I was struck by the venom with which I had seen an actor spit out the words and they stuck on the page as well. Following the anxiety identified by Orgel, this study synthesizes literary and historical discussions of effeminacy to better understand its presence in early modern literature. While the term effeminacy may imply violation of certain societal norms, it does not imply that a man described as effeminate is engaging in deviant sexual behavior (by early modern standards). This chapter explores early modern authors Shakespeare and Jonson’s concern with ancient Roman masculinity To properly analyze these works, I consulted the playwrights’ sources, including the ancient historians Tacitus, Plutarch and Suetonius. By examining the history of masculinity and effeminacy and their relationship to power in the early modern era and assessing the presence of both in literature, this research responds to a gap in the conversation about how we view the aristocratic male characters of authors like Shakespeare, Jonson, Marlowe, and Sidney. Whether through moments that are tragic, comedic, or somewhere in between, these characters reveal a struggle to maintain standards of masculinity and to avoid the specter of effeminacy
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