The Situation of Discourse: Evidence from Discourse Markers

Mandarin Chinese zhishi (similar to English ‘only’), comprised of the adverb zhi and the copula shi, can act as an adverb (ADV) or a discourse marker (DM). This study analyzes the role of zhishi in spoken discourse, based on the methodological and theoretical principles of interactional linguistics and conversation analysis. The corpus used in this study consists of three sets of data: 1) naturally-occurring daily conversations; 2) radio/TV interviews; and 3) TV panel discussions on current political affairs. As a whole, this study reveals that the notions of restrictiveness, exclusivity, and adversativity are closely associated with ADV zhishi and DM zhishi. In addition, the present data show that since zhishi is often used to express a ‘less than expected’ feeling, it can be used to indicate mirativity (i.e. language indicating that an utterance conveys the speaker’s surprise). The data also show that the distribution of zhishi as an adverb or discourse marker depends on turn taking systems and speech situations in spoken discourse. Specifically, the ADV zhishi tends to occur in radio/TV interviews and TV panel news discussions, while the DM zhishi occurs more often in casual conversations.

Od pojave jezikoslovnog interesa za njihov značaj, diskursne oznake predstavljaju problematičnu kategoriju. Različiti su pristupi s vremenom stvorili terminološku zbrku, a zbog činjenice što sama kategorija nije uniformno definirana, stvoreno je okružje u kojem one svoj status iz pragmatične kategorije počinju mijenjati u rezidualnu kategoriju jezika. Tome je doprinjelo i njihovo proučavanje u sklopu vrlo uskih tema i/ili u okviru specifičnih teorija s vlastitom heuristikom. Ne bi li se nadogradila dosadašnja saznanja, ovdje će diskursnim oznakama biti dano prvenstvo. Što preciznijim određivanjem njihova sinkronijskog statusa u vidu pragmatički utemeljene jezične kategorije i pružanjem dijakronijskog uvida u kategoriju, u kontekstu cyberkomunikacije, odredit će se položaj diskursnih oznaka u jezičnom sustavu, kao i njihova vrijednost za sustav koja se manifestira pri upotrebi. Još preciznije, raspravljat će se o razvojnim aspektima dikursnih oznaka s ciljem njihova razgraničenja od šutnje i kategorije poštapalica. Na taj će se način dijakronijskim pristupom ovoj pragmatičnoj kategoriji i osvrtanjem na marginalizirane pojavnosti u jeziku (npr. šutnja i poštapalice) nastojati doprinijeti i teoriji jezične evolucije, ali i istaknuti potrebu za formulacijom gramatičkih modela koji bi obuhvaćali i diskursnu razinu jezika. Konkretna analiza provedena je na privatnom korpusu od 600 razgovora vođenih razmjenom instant poruka (upotrebom aplikacija Hangouts, Facebook messenger, Whatsapp) i primjerima izabranim s Hrvatskog mrežnog korpusa (hrWaC), što je poslužilo kao referentni korpus. Metodološki i teorijski analiza je potpomognuta postavkama konverzacijske analize, pragmatike, analize diskursa, filozofije jezika i funkcionalnim pristupima gramatici. Širi znanstveni doprinos istraživanja ogleda se u pružanju teorijsko-metodološkog pristupa namijenjenog proučavanju i analizi komunikacije u cyber-prostoru, ukazivanju na dijakronijske procese na diskursnoj razini, te isticanju nužnosti za funkcionalnim teorijama jezika.

Discourse markers are linguistic items that are frequently used in the course of daily communication.These are not only connecting words that contribute to cohesion of discourse but are also crucial tools for achieving intended communicative purposes in the course of discourse.Studies have been carried out on discourse markers as used in other languages of the world but since every linguistic variety is unique and culture dependent, it is not obvious that these linguistic items are similar in all languages.This paper's goal is to discuss the functions of discourse markers Gichuka speeches.The study is guided by the Relevance Theory by Sperber and Wilson.It utilizes qualitative research technique and was carried out in Chuka, Meru South Sub County, Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya.The population for this study includes all discourse markers captured in social events conducted in Gichuka.The researcher purposively sampled five real life events conducted in Gichuka.Data was collected using an observation schedule that was used to record the contextual information, and a guiding card was used to record the functions of discourse markers.The transcribed discourse markers are ninety-two.Guided by the principles of relevance the researcher identified and discussed the functions of all the discourse markers identified, taking into account the speakers meaning conveyed by the Gichuka discourse markers from various speech situations.The study established that most Gichuka discourse markers are used either to achieve conversational coherence in speech or to seek the attention of the audience.The study enhances the analysis of Gichuka discourse markers and adds to the existing knowledge on the analysis of discourse markers in various languages.It specifically enriches knowledge on the application of the tenets of the Relevance Theory.The study also contributes to scholarly literature in linguistics; especially in pragmatics.

The markedness principle in Brazilian Portuguese verb-based discourse markers viu? and entendeu?. A productive, vigorous debate on grammar issues took place as the new millennium approached. A significant amount of work was published in that field as we witnessed a grammatical boom between 1991 and 2014 in Brazil (Faraco and Vieira 2016). Along with a resulting new range of descriptive perspectives and propositions, the debate over discourse markers (DMs) relevance has increased sharply among language curriculum professionals. Although they have played an important role in functionalist grammars where interaction is a key component, DMs are still regarded as a peripheral category in natural language normative grammars. Also, DMs are typically associated with language users’ social status. Based on cognitive-functionalist grammar studies, my research has placed DMs on the common ground between a functionalist framework (by investigating the relationship between form and content) and cognitive linguistics theory (categorization, prototypicality, conceptual metaphors). This paper explores some of my research findings on the markedness principle as applied to Brazilian Portuguese DMs viu? and entendeu? in the light of cognitive-functionalist theories. Some contrast between these DMs and their English equivalent is also explored. In doing so, I hope to bring forward new resources to explore verb-based DMs in teaching Portuguese to speakers of other languages. REZUMAT. Principiul de marcare în cazul marcatorilor discursivi verbali din portugheza braziliană viu? și entendeu?. O dezbatere productivă și viguroasă pe teme gramaticale a avut loc odată cu apropierea noului mileniu. O cantitate semnificativă de lucrări a fost publicată în acest domeniu, asistând la un boom gramatical între 1991 și 2014 în Brazilia (Faraco și Vieira 2016). Împreună cu o nouă serie de perspective și propuneri descriptive rezultate, dezbaterea privind relevanța marcatorilor discursivi (MD) a crescut brusc în rândul profesioniștilor în curriculum lingvistic. Deși au jucat un rol important în gramaticile funcționaliste în care interacțiunea este o componentă cheie, MD sunt încă considerați o categorie periferică în gramaticile normative ale limbii naturale. De asemenea, MD sunt de obicei asociați cu statutul social al utilizatorilor de limbi străine. Pe baza studiilor de gramatică cognitiv-funcționalistă, cercetarea mea a plasat MD pe terenul comun definit de un cadru teoretic funcționalist (prin investigarea relației dintre formă și conținut) și teoria lingvisticii cognitive (categorizare, prototipicalitate, metafore conceptuale). Această lucrare explorează unele dintre rezultatele cercetării mele privind principiul marcării aplicat MD viu? și entendeu? din portugheza braziliană în lumina teoriilor cognitiv-funcționaliste. De asemenea, sunt explorate unele contraste între acesti MD și echivalentul lor în limba engleză. În acest fel, sper să aduc noi perspective pentru a explora MD deverbali în predarea limbii portugheze pentru vorbitorii de alte limbi. Cuvinte-cheie: marcatori discursivi, funcționalism, lingvistică cognitivă, marcare, predarea limbii portugheze vorbitorilor de alte limbi. Article history: Received 25 August 2023; Revised 5 October 2023; Accepted 5 November 2023;Available online 20 December 2023; Available print 31 December 2023.

The aim of the study is to determine the functions of German discourse markers in texts of various functional styles. The scientific novelty lies in the fact that the functions of German discourse markers in texts of various functional styles have been described for the first time. As a result, it has been shown that discourse markers are found in the scientific, publicistic, literary and colloquial styles. In the texts of the colloquial style, several functions of discourse markers are manifested: the linking function, which is expressed through the establishment of causal relations and additive relations; the function of signaling the transition to another topic of conversation; the function of mitigating the categoricity of what is being said; the function of explaining what was said earlier. It is quite obvious that discourse markers are involved in the structuring of an oral text. In scientific and publicistic texts, discourse markers serve to structure the information, ensure text coherence and also organize the line of reasoning. In literary texts, discourse markers perform not only the structuring function, but also develop rhetorical relationships in combination with rhetorical means to achieve communicative goals.

The current study aims at investigating two discourse markers that are used in Saudi Arabic, “qSdk and yʕny”, against Schourup’s characteristics of discourse markers which are connectivity, optionality, and non-truth conditionality. Additionally, this study investigates the pragmatic uses and procedural meanings of those discourse markers using Blakemore’s procedural meaning and relevance theory as a framework. By examining two discourse markers that received less attention in other studies, the current study builds on previous literature in this field. Regarding methodology, the current study is a corpus-based study in which two corpora containing texts written in Saudi Arabic are used to extract data and evidence. The study concludes that “qSdk and yʕny” behave as discourse markers by being optional, connecting two segments together, and having no influence on the truth condition of the sentence in which they are used. The discourse marker “qSdk” serves three procedural meanings: asking for clarification, correction and making irony whereas “yʕny” serves the procedural meanings of clarification and asking for clarification. Furthermore, the use of these discourse markers makes the sentence more relevant to listeners as they need less cognitive effect to derive the pragmatic meaning of the sentence.

<i>Metalanguage in Interaction</i> is about the crystallization of metalanguage employed throughout interaction into the discourse markers which permeate talk. Based on close analysis of naturally-occurring Hebrew conversation, it is a synchronic study of the grammaticization of discourse markers, a phenomenon until now mostly studied from a diachronic perspective. It constitutes the first monograph in the fields of Hebrew interactional linguistics and Hebrew discourse markers. The book first presents what is unique to the present approach to discourse markers and gives them an operational definition. Discourse markers are explored as a system, illuminating their patterning in terms of function, structure, and the moments in interaction at which they are employed. Next, detailed analysis of four Hebrew discourse markers illuminates not only the functions and grammaticization patterns of these markers, but also what they reveal about quintessential aspects of Israeli society, identity, and culture. The conclusion discusses commonalities and differences in the grammaticization patterns of the four markers, and relates the grammaticization of discourse markers from interaction to projectability in discourse.

Discourse markers exhibit a range of grammatical properties that set them apart from many other lexical and grammatical forms. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to account for these properties. Most commonly, such accounts have drawn on grammaticalization theory, less commonly also on the notion of pragmaticalization. As argued in this paper, however, the rise of discourse markers cannot be described exhaustively in terms of parameters of grammaticalization or pragmaticalization. Looking at the rise of two English and one French discourse marker, the paper argues that this development is also shaped by a general strategy of discourse processing called cooptation, which accounts for properties of discourse markers that are beyond the scope of grammaticalization theory. Thus, discourse markers are described best as grammaticalized (paren)theticals.

Turn beginnings are the place in conversation where the connection (or otherwise) between a prior and a next turn is displayed. This crucial interactional task is usually fulfilled by turn-initial particles, specifically those known as discourse markers. Although the use of discourse markers by second or foreign language speakers has actually been largely discussed in the previous literature on interlanguage pragmatics, studies that focus on turn-initial discourse markers and that are conducted from a conversation analytical perspective are still scarce. The aim of this paper is therefore twofold. On the one hand, it makes a case for the use of conversation analysis as a research methodology for the study of discourse markers in a second or foreign language. On the other hand, and as a practical elaboration, this paper investigates the use of the discourse markers “y” and “sí” in the turn-initial position by foreign language speakers of Spanish. The results show that both discourse markers are part of an overall concern of signalling continuity and affiliation even in topic shifts and in non-aligned turns.

The present study aimed to investigate gender differences in using discourse markers (DMs) in spoken Jordanian Arabic. A quantitative-qualitative analysis of natural everyday conversations was employed, utilizing Brinton’s (1996) binary categorization as a theoretical framework to define the textual and interpersonal functions of Jordanian DMs. In total, (39) tokens of Jordanian DMs were designated, with اه /ʔah/ (yes/yeah) occupying the highest rank in the frequency list, and their functions were distinguished. The findings indicated insignificant differences in the frequency of DMs used by Jordanian male/female speakers. Gender discrepancies were observed at the functional levels. While Jordanian female speakers tend to use DMs for textual purposes, male speakers prefer using DMs for interpersonal functions. In sum, the difference between Jordanian male and female usage of DMs lies at the functional level rather than quantity.

This study explores discourse markers (DMs) as they occur with compliment responses (CRs) in classroom interactions among Iranian learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Using the tenets of conversation analysis, this paper draws on data from teacher–student interactions in several private language institutes in Iran. After audiorecording and transcription of the compliment–response exchanges, 148 DMs were identified within the responses. These sequences were analyzed to find out how DMs are combined with four distinct CR types; accept, mitigate, reject, and request interpretation. DMs were also identified and categorizedbased on their frequency of occurance and semantic features to allow comparison with previous findings. The results of this study revealed that Iranian EFL learners resorted to a limited number of DMs in responses to teacher‐generated compliments, with “linking” DMs being the most favorable type. Moreover, some DMs were accompanied by a specific CR type which helped the formation of an intended illocutionary force by the complimentee. It was also observed that a DM or a combination of these markers can stand alone as a legitimate and functional response to compliments, which further reveals that DMs can contribute to both semantic and pragmatic meaning. These findings clearly suggest that explicit teaching of DMs in English language classes should be taken into consideration, as these linguistic elements can provide learners with important tools to convey their intended meaning more smoothly and effectively.

This study conducts an examination of Mandarin Chinese Discourse Markers (DMs) within oral speech, guided by the Relevance Theory as proposed by Sperber and Wilson (1986). By exploring the pragmatic and semantic layers of DMs, the research clarifies how these linguistic tools streamline communication, ensuring optimal relevance through minimal cognitive effort. The analysis of the research categorizes DMs into eight pragmatic functions, ranging from topic-related markers to illocutionary performatives, each serving distinct roles in enhancing discourse coherence and listener comprehension. This research not only explains the procedural versus conceptual nature of DMs but also reveals a spectrum where Mandarin DMs predominantly exhibit conceptual properties, underlining the critical role of context in DM utilization.

The volume explores key convergences between cognitive and discourse approaches to language and language learning, both first and second. The emphasis is on the role of language as it is used in everyday interaction and as it reflects everyday cognition. The contributors share a usage-based perspective on language - whether they are examining grammar or metaphor or interactional dynamics - which situates language as part of a broader range of systems which underlie the organization of social life and human thought. While sharing fundamental assumptions about language, the particulars of the areas of inquiry and emphases of those engaged in discourse analysis versus cognitive linguistics are diverse enough that, historically, many have tended to remain unaware of the interrelations among these approaches. Thus, researchers have also largely overlooked the possibilities of how work from each perspective can challenge, inform, and enrich the other. The papers in the volume make a unique contribution by more consciously searching for connections between the two broad approaches. The results are a set of dynamic, thought-provoking analyses that add considerably to our understanding of language and language learning. The papers represent a rich range of frameworks within a usage-based approach to language. Cognitive Grammar, Mental Space and Blending Theory, Construction Grammar, ethnomethodology, and interactional sociolinguistics are just some of the frameworks used by the researchers in this volume. The particular subjects of inquiry are also quite varied and include first and second language learning, signed language, syntactic phenomena, interactional regulation and dynamics, discourse markers, metaphor theory, polysemy, language processing and humor. The volume is of interests to researchers in cognitive linguistics, discourse and conversational analysis, and first and second language learning, as well as signed languages.

Within the theoretical framework of dependency grammar, the current research quantitatively explores the syntactic functionality of Discourse Markers (DMs), specifically focusing on and, but, and so in the discourse of TED talks as the primary subject of analysis. Using the distance-driven metric of Mean Dependency Distance (MDD), we observe that sentences featuring a DM at the onset exhibit heightened syntactic complexity compared to their counterparts without DMs. Beyond demonstrating the syntactic relevance of DMs in natural language sentences, our findings provide insights into the relationship between the syntactic role of DMs and human cognitive processes, suggesting that sentence-initial DMs may tend to coincide with complex syntactic structures, thereby implying the upcoming processing challenges and a heightened cognitive load. Hypothetically, this indicates a potential essential syntactic function of DMs: acting as a preliminary indicator of enhanced processing demands, equivalent to a priming for complex linguistic processing.

This article showcases an example of how conversation analysis (CA) materials can be put to use for teaching Korean as a Foreign/Second Language. The article first reviews a set of CA research on two Korean discourse markers, kulenikka and ani, that occur at response beginnings to mark trouble with the preceding question. Then it discusses the use of the research findings to help teaching oral skills in the classroom. The suggested activities illustrate how teachers can utilize the CA materials—both the information gained from the research as well as the recordings/transcripts of naturally occurring conversation—(a) to help raise learners' awareness of the discourse markers' usage in real-life talk and (b) to develop practice materials to help learners' increased automaticity of the discourse markers and to eventually use them in speaking activities within a communicative context that resembles a real-life situation.