Abstract
The introduction of Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) severely damaged the New Zealand kiwifruit industry, which in 2010 was based on only two cultivars. Despite an extraordinarily quick and strong response by industry, government, and scientists to minimize the economic and social impacts, the economic consequences of this outbreak were severe. Although our understanding of Psa epidemiology and control methods increased substantively over the past six years, the kiwifruit industry largely recovered because of the introduction of a less-susceptible yellow-fleshed cultivar. The New Zealand population of Psa is clonal but has evolved rapidly since its introduction by exchanging mobile genetic elements, including integrative conjugative elements (ICEs), with the local bacterial populations. In some cases, this has led to copper resistance. It is currently believed that the center of origin of the pathogen is Japan or Korea, but biovar 3, which is responsible for the global outbreak, originated in China.
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