The Roman Inquisition

Abstract

The centralized Roman Inquisition, or Holy Office of the Inquisition, was developed from 1542 as distinct from the medieval local inquisitions and the Iberian state inquisitions formed from 1478, but it was strongly influenced by the Spanish Inquisition. This article describes its organizational development in Italy, as well as its changing targets, procedures, and punishments. It was run by the popes and select cardinals in the Congregations of the Holy Office (well established from 1551), and of the Index (from 1572). Eventually over forty local tribunals under inquisitors were established in the Papal State, and other states in north-central Italy, and in Malta. Although unable to hold formal tribunals in the Kingdom of Naples (ruled by Spain), Roman Inquisition officials could influence inquisitorial activity there. Relations between the central Congregations, local tribunals, bishops, and secular states were variable in activity and cooperation. The Roman Inquisition is now judged to have been milder and more legalistic than the Iberian Inquisitions. Torture was used less frequently, and was usually less cruel and better supervised, while executions were rarer. Public auto-da-fé sentencing displays, notorious in Iberia, were rare in Italy. Until the late 1560s, the prime concerns were the major heretical theological views spread by northern Protestant protagonists (such as Luther, Zwingli, Melanchthon, then Anabaptists and Calvin), and Spanish influenced heterodox ideas spread from southern Italy by Juan Valdes’s followers. Thereafter, people were still pursued for advocating salvation by faith alone, for attacking the Trinity, the cult of saints and the virginity of Mary, but inquisitors concentrated more on abuse of sacraments, blasphemy, magical arts, and priestly sexual solicitation. Most punishments were “spiritual” rather than physical. Cases of Judaizing and Mohammedanism were pursued, especially in Venice and Malta. As recent research emphasizes, book publication and censorship, led by the Index Congregation (but sometimes in conflict with the Holy Office), was often inefficient, ineffective, and not greatly feared, with long delays in licensing publication, expurgation of dubious texts, and reissuing, and problems in finding willing censors.