Abstract
Carotenoids are natural pigments generally with a polyene chain consisting of 9–11 double bonds. In recent years, there has been increasing research interest in carotenoids because of their protective roles in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). While the consumption of carotenoids may have a beneficial effect on CVDs, the literature shows inconsistencies between carotenoid consumption and reductions in the risk of CVDs. Therefore, this review aims to provide a summary of the association between dietary carotenoid intake and the risk of CVDs from published epidemiological studies. Meanwhile, to further elucidate the roles of carotenoid intake in CVD protection, this review outlines the evidence reporting the effects of carotenoids on cardiovascular health from randomized controlled trials by assessing classical CVD risk factors, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and vascular health-related parameters, respectively. Given the considerable discrepancies among the published results, this review underlines the importance of bioavailability and summarizes the current dietary strategies for improving the bioavailability of carotenoids. In conclusion, this review supports the protective roles of carotenoids against CVDs, possibly by attenuating oxidative stress and mitigating inflammatory response. In addition, this review suggests that the bioavailability of carotenoids should be considered when evaluating the roles of carotenoids in CVD protection.
Highlights
This review aims to provide a summary of the published results from epidemiological and interventional studies regarding the potential roles of carotenoids in cardiovascular disease (CVD) protection
When comparing the highest and lowest tertiles of provitamin A carotenoid intake, the authors found no significant association between provitamin A carotenoid intake and the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality for both males (RR: 1.02, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.70–1.48) and females (RR: 0.62, 95% CI: 0.30–1.29) after adjusting for various risk factors such as age, smoking status and hypertension
No significant inverse association was observed between the total carotenoid intake and the heart disease mortality when compared the extreme quintiles of carotenoid intake (RR: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.50–1.26) in the Cox proportional hazard model adjusted for age, sex, serum cholesterol, disease status, physical ailments affecting shopping and vitamin C and E intakes
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death globally, accounting for approximately 32% of all deaths [1]. The World Economic Forum and Harvard School of Public Health [2] estimate that the total economic cost of CVDs, arising from both direct healthcare cost and the loss of productivity, could increase from $863 billion in 2010 to $1044 billion in 2030. Given the high mortality rate and alarming economic cost, understanding the risk factors for CVDs is of paramount importance
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