The role of osteocytes in bone mechanotransduction

Abstract

IntroductionBones are subjected to a variety of mechanical loads duringdaily activities. In the nineteenth century, Julius Wolffproposed that bones adapt their mass and 3D structure tothe loading conditions in order to optimize their load-bearing capacity, and that this process is driven bymechanical stress [1]. For the past centuries, an increasingnumber of theoretical and experimental results reveal thatosteocytes are the pivotal cells orchestrating this bio-mechanical regulation of bone mass and structure, whichis accomplished by the process of bone remodeling [2–5]Osteocytes are terminally differentiated cells of theosteogenic lineage that are derived from mesenchymalprecursor cells. A number of molecules have been iden-tified as important markers of osteocytes, such as matrixextracellular phosphoglycoprotein [6] sclerostin [7], dentinmatrix protein-1 [8], and phex protein [8]. The osteocytesare the most abundant cells in adult bone and are constantlyspaced throughout the mineralized matrix. Mature osteo-cytes have a characteristic dendritic cell shape, with pro-cesses radiating from the cell body through the canaliculi indifferent directions. These processes form an intercellularnetwork through gap and adherent junctions with surround-ing osteocytes, the cells lining the bone surface and bonemarrow. Through this unique 3D network, osteocytes areanatomically placed in a prime position not only to sensedeformations driven by stresses placed upon bone, butalso to respond with passage of signals to the neighboringcells [9].For more than a decade now, it is known that theosteocytes are very sensitive to stress applied to intact bonetissue [10–16]. Computer simulation models have shownthat mechanosensors lying at the surface of bone, asosteoblasts and bone lining cells do, would be less sensitiveto changes in the loading pattern than the osteocytes, lyingwithin the calcified matrix [3]. Interestingly, targetedablation of osteocytes in mice disturbs the adaptation ofbone to mechanical loading [16].Osteocytes as key players in the process of bonemechanotransductionIt is currently believed that when bones are loaded, theresulting deformation will drive the thin layer of interstitialfluid surrounding the network of osteocytes to flow fromregions under high pressure to regions under low pressure[17, 18]. This flow of fluid is sensed by the osteocyteswhich in turn produce signaling molecules that can regulatebone resorption through the osteoclasts, and bone formationthrough the osteoblasts, leading to adequate bone remodel-ing [17, 18]. This concept is known as the fluid flowhypothesis. Evidence has been increasing for the flow ofcanalicular interstitial fluid as the likely factor that informsthe osteocytes about the level of bone loading [2, 5, 17, 18].Nevertheless, Vatsa and colleagues [19, 20] proposed thatif osteocytes could sense matrix strains directly, the cellshape, cytoskeletal alignment and distribution of adhesionsites in osteocytes in situ would bear alignment to themechanical loading patterns. Indeed, it was shown that the