Abstract
The immune system consists of various cells, organs, and processes that interact in a sophisticated manner to defend against pathogens. Upon initial exposure to an invader, nonspecific mechanisms are raised through the activation of macrophages, monocytes, basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, innate lymphoid cells, or natural killer cells. During the course of an infection, more specific responses develop (adaptive immune responses) whose hallmarks include the expansion of B and T cells that specifically recognize foreign antigens. Cell to cell communication takes place through physical interactions as well as through the release of mediators (cytokines, chemokines) that modify cell activity and control and regulate the immune response. One regulator of cell states is the transcription factor Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) which mediates responses to various stimuli and is involved in a variety of processes (cell cycle, development, apoptosis, carcinogenesis, innate and adaptive immune responses). It consists of two protein classes with NF-κB1 (p105/50) and NF-κB2 (p100/52) belonging to class I, and RelA (p65), RelB and c-Rel belonging to class II. The active transcription factor consists of a dimer, usually comprised of both class I and class II proteins conjugated to Inhibitor of κB (IκB). Through various stimuli, IκB is phosphorylated and detached, allowing dimer migration to the nucleus and binding of DNA. NF-κB is crucial in regulating the immune response and maintaining a balance between suppression, effective response, and immunopathologies. Parasites are a diverse group of organisms comprised of three major groups: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites. Each group induces distinct effector immune mechanisms and is susceptible to different types of immune responses (Th1, Th2, Th17). This review describes the role of NF-κB and its activity during parasite infections and its contribution to inducing protective responses or immunopathologies.
Highlights
Parasites are a diverse group of organisms comprised of three major groups: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites
The high prevalence of helminth infections has led to research regarding the development of vaccines. These have led to numerous studies regarding vaccine trials, the impacts of helminth antigens on symptoms of autoimmune diseases, and cytokine patterns during infections, yet only a small proportion of the research has focused on characterizing the intracellular mechanisms of the immune response in the context of NF-κB and this topic seems to have been relatively neglected to date
The NF-κB pathway is vital in regulating immune function and it plays an important role during infections by parasites, being integral to the formation of protective responses, or pathologies
Summary
Parasites are a diverse group of organisms comprised of three major groups: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites. During the course of their evolution, they have gained the ability to live in or on hosts and gather food at the hosts’ expense They may feed on both humans and animals; up to 2.0 billion [1] people may suffer from parasitic infections, and losses in animal production are estimated at many US$ billions per year [2]. The goal of this article is to explore parasites’ interplay with NF-κB In this manuscript, we review the existing knowledge regarding NF-κB expression and activity during infections with Plasmodium spp., Trypanosoma spp., Leishmania spp., Toxoplasma spp., cestodes, nematodes, and flukes in the context of the parasite life cycle, occupied niche, and impact on the immune response. By bringing these disparate reports together and reviewing the topic in one publication we hope to shed new light on this issue, highlighting the role NF-κB plays during parasite infections and why it represents an important target for parasite manipulation
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