Abstract
A myriad of factors favor the emergence and re-emergence of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), including migration, climate change, intensified livestock production, an increasing volume of international trade and transportation, and changes to ecosystems (e.g., deforestation and loss of biodiversity). Consequently, arboviruses are distributed worldwide and represent over 30% of all emerging infectious diseases identified in the past decade. Although some arboviral infections go undetected or are associated with mild, flu-like symptoms, many are important human and veterinary pathogens causing serious illnesses such as arthritis, gastroenteritis, encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever and devastating economic loss as a consequence of lost productivity and high mortality rates among livestock. One of the most consistent molecular features of emerging arboviruses, in addition to their near exclusive use of RNA genomes, is the inclusion of viral, non-structural proteins that act as interferon antagonists. In this review, we describe these interferon antagonists and common strategies that arboviruses use to counter the host innate immune response. In addition, we discuss the complex interplay between host factors and viral determinants that are associated with virus emergence and re-emergence, and identify potential targets for vaccine and anti-viral therapies.
Highlights
Arthropod-borne viruses are a large group of viruses that use hematophagous arthropod vectors, including mosquitoes, ticks, biting midges, and phlebotomine flies, for transmission between vertebrate hosts
Arboviruses have the ability to infect a broad range of vertebrate hosts, which is important for their maintenance and amplification in nature; these amplifying vertebrate hosts achieve a high viremia that enables transmission of the virus to a naïve arthropod taking a blood meal
IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) include viral pattern recognitions receptors such as retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5), toll-like receptors (TLRs), 2’,5’-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS), protein kinase R (PKR); transcription factors such as signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), STAT2, IRF3 as well as antiviral effectors such as Mx and Ifit family members that are important for the control of viral infection
Summary
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are a large group of viruses that use hematophagous (blood feeding) arthropod vectors, including mosquitoes, ticks, biting midges, and phlebotomine flies, for transmission between vertebrate hosts. A diverse group of arthropod-vectored plant viruses have been described including members of the Bunyaviridae (genus Tospovirus); Geminiviridae (genera Mastrevirus, Curtovirus, Begomovirus, and Topocuvirus); Caulimoviridae (genera Badnavirus, Caulimovirus, Tungrovirus, and Soymovirus); Potyviridae (genera Potyvirus, Rymovirus, Macluravirus, Ipomovirus, and Tritimovirus); and Closteroviridae (genera Closterovirus, Crinivirus, and Ampelovirus). Because they do not infect vertebrates, these arthropod-vectored plant viruses are not classified as arboviruses [3,4,5]. Flavivirus and Alphavirus and the family Bunyaviridae and the role of their nonstructural proteins in antagonizing the host interferon (IFN) response
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