The Rise of Modern Literature in Burma

Abstract

In this paper, I will treat the rise of Modern Literature in Burma. I consider that it rose not only under the direct influence of the western novel but also as the result of a modernization of the indigenious vatthu. In order to demonstrate that point, it would be neccessary to take the diffusion of various kinds of vatthu(s) and their readership into account.In the present day Burma, the novel is called vatthu or kalapaw vatthu. Kalapaw means modern or new and vatthu is originally the name of a specific genre in Burmese Literature. The concept of vatthu before the 20th century could be generally difined as a narrative in prose, whose subject matter is mainly adapted from the Buddhist Scriptures. On the other hand, the word of vatthu also began appearing in the titles of translations of the bible and a certain number of literary works starting from the beginning of the 19th century.Dividing them according to their physical appearances and/or circulation, 4 types of vatthu can be considered to have existed in the last 20 years of the 19th century.(1) The earlier handwritten vatthu(s) [in pe (a palm leaf) or parapaik (a handwritten paper book)](2) The earlier printed vatthu(s)(3) Biblical vatthu(s) [printed]; e. g. Yo: na Vatthu (The Book of Jonah), Ethatta Vaithu (The Book of Esthel), etc.(4) Translated vatthu(s) [printed]; e. g. 99 Vatthu (99 Stories), Hatinntayi Vatthu (Hatim Ta'i Story), etc.Most of the earlier vatthu(s) [(1)] were preserved in temples, a few in private libraries. Some of them started to be gradually printed after 1870 and became a part of the diffusion network of the publishing business [(2)]. But their numerical importance were limited in those days. Vatthu(s) of type (3) were used for propagation by missionaries and (4) as texts for use of the Anglo-Vernacular schools.In 1904, Maung Yin Maung Ma Maý Ma Vatthu (Maung Yin Maung and Ma Me Ma Vatthu) by James Hla Kyaw (1866-1920) was first published. With its various kinds of new elements, it was considered to be very novelistic. The author, James Hla Kyaw belonged to the first generation to get the higher education from the Anglo-Vernecular system under the colonial policy. He apparently read A. Dumas's The Count of Monte Crist in English, which he partly adapted in Maung Yin Maung Ma Maý Ma Vatthu. Moreover his educational background made it possible for him to become acquainted with vatthu(s) of type (3) and (4). That is why he already knew the new usage of the word vatthu. At the same time, however, the author tried to elaborate this text within the confines of the vatthu tradition. For example, he borrowed the form of narration from a famous vatthu of the Konbaung period, Temiya Vatthu [vatthu of type (2)] and transformed the main motif that he borrowed from The Count of Monte Crist into the well-known one of Janaka Vatthu [type (2)]. These transformations show the author's awareness in his creation of the nature of Burmese readership and his respect for the cultural context.One of the successors of James Hla Kyaw was U: Kyi: (1858-1926) who wrote Hkyinpaungywetthe Maung Hmaing Vatthu (The Roselle Seller. Maung Hmaing Vatthu) in 1904. His educational background was completely different from that of James Hla Kyaw. He worked as a secretary for a courtier and thus obtained extensive knowledge about the traditional literature at court. After the collapse of the rule of the Burmese dynasty, he went up to Rangoon and supported himself by proofreading. Anyway, he must have read vatthu(s) of type (1) and (2). Concerning type (3) or (4), we have no evidence suggesting that he ever read them. But, at least, it is certain that he read Maung Yin Maung and Ma Maý Ma Vatthu and that he wrote his o