Abstract
Intensive pastoral farming has been linked to adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation and increased fluxes of nitrogen, phosphorus, sediments, and pathogens into waterways, resulting in their degradation. Stand-off pads are engineered structures covered with bedding materials, available for occupation by stock to minimise those adverse effects to soil and water bodies. Wood chips are ideal for bedding due to their low cost, high water holding capacity, and stock preference as resting areas. While they reduce the mobility of both nutrients and pathogens, their effectiveness depends on the type of wood, size of the chips, pH, pad design, and feeding management used. Dissolved organic carbon, present in wood residue, may slow nitrogen mineralisation thereby decreasing lossvialeachate. This effect depends on plant tannins and nutrients already stored within the plant tissue. Poplar and willow have high concentrations of tannins in leaves and bark with potential nitrification-inhibiting properties. When grown on-farm, these deep-rooted trees also reduce nitrogen leaching and prevent soil erosion. This review addresses the use of temporary stand-off pads within poplar or willow silvopastoral systems. Harvested trees can provide suitable wood chips for constructing the stand-off pad, while the deep rooting systems of the trees will reduce the moisture content of the pad, preventing waterlogging. A key objective is to discuss the feasibility and establishment of multiple temporary stand-off pads that allow for stock rotation from pad to pad, and subsequent on-site composting of wood-wastes into fertiliser, reducing both nutrient inputs and losses in agricultural systems. The review highlights the potential suitability of poplar and willow tree species for such a system.
Highlights
Intensive pastoral farming has been linked to adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation and increased fluxes of nitrogen, phosphorus, sediments, and pathogens into waterways, resulting in their degradation
Stand-off pads are engineered structures covered with bedding materials, available for occupation by stock to minimise those adverse effects to soil and water bodies
A key objective is to discuss the feasibility and establishment of multiple temporary stand-off pads that allow for stock rotation from pad to pad, and subsequent on-site composting of wood-wastes into fertiliser, reducing both nutrient inputs and losses in agricultural systems
Summary
Growing concern around the environmental sustainability of the dairy and beef industries has attracted scientific as well as public interest, with worldwide media coverage around impacts on water quality and the pollution of waterways (Gmür, 2015; Van der Zee, 2018; Cardello, 2019; Praveen, 2019). Short-term solutions have been investigated where an adsorbent surface material overlies free-draining soil, with no engineered structure to collect leachate (Vinten et al, 2006; Smith et al, 2010; Christianson et al, 2017) These “short-term” or “temporary” pads can reduce costs and offer animal welfare and environmental benefits (such as reduced soil pugging or the on-site “treatment” of organic wastes), care has to be taken to avoid groundwater pollution (CREH, 2005). The use of woodchips has become popular, especially in temporary stand-off solutions, where the surface material is directly applied to soil— either with or without topsoil removed (CREH, 2005) In such scenarios, the woodchip-soil bedding needs to capture and adsorb a significant amount of the stock effluent and potentially harmful compounds therein. Site restrictions must be considered in areas prone to frost since effluent flow through the woodchip surface may be impeded (Smith et al, 2010)
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