The place of human remains in the frame of cultural heritage: the restitution of medieval skeletons from a Jewish cemetery

European and Northwest African Middle Pleistocene Hominids by F. Clark Howell of human skeletal remains from the Middle Pleistocene has always been one of the greatest gaps in human-paleontological knowledge. At THE SPARSE REPRESENTATION first, Southeastern Asia was unique in having provided remains from the Trinil beds in Java, but the signifi­ cance of this poorly preserved skull-cap was confirmed and greatly amplified by subsequent discoveries (Von Koenigswald 1940) of better preserved specimens at other localities of similar age, as well as in the still older Djetis beds. Still tfuly unique in all the world is the somewhat younger occupation site of Locality 1 Choukoutien, with its extraordinarily abundant, prob­ ably cannibalized, human remains in association with hearths, stone implements (Choukoutienian chopper/ chopping-tool complex), and remains of slaughtered animals. For many years, the only such find from the West was the enigmatic human mandible from the Grafenrain gravel pit at Mauer in the Rhineland. Then, within a few years in the mid-thirties, three additional speci­ mens came to light in western Europe (Steinheim), Britain (Swanscombe), and northwest Africa (Rabat, Morocco). In the last several years, further Middle Pleistocene human remains were found in northwest Africa, both in Algeria (Ternifine) and in Morocco (Sidi Abderrahman). All these discoveries (Fig. I) have excellent paleontological associations, and, in three cases (Swanscombe, Ternifine, Sidi Abderrahman), there are associated stone implements (Acheulean of various stages). However, no occupation site is yet F. CLARK HOWELL is Associate Professor of Anthropology, De­ partment of Anthropology, University of Chicago (Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.). He was born in 1925, and educated at the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1953). HOWELL has undertaken field and other studies on early man in Europe (1953,1956) and in Africa (1954,1957-58,1959), and made a recent brief visit to Israel (1959). He has published various papers on human paleontology, especially as regards the Neanderthal problem, and on early man and the Pleisto­ cene in general. Prior to submitting the present paper to CURRENT ANTHRO­ POLOGY, HOWELL sent it, for comment and criticism, to three colleagues, of whom W. W. Howells and Kenneth P. Oakley responded. The response was primarily commendatory, and except for HOWELL's addition of some paragraphs along lines recommended by Oakley, the paper stands as first written. Vol. I . No.3' Ma)' 1960 known from the Middle Pleistocene of Europe or Africa with in situ human skeletal remains, stone im· plements, and the bones of slaughtered animals. These human skeletal remains, taken in conjunction with those from the Middle Pleistocene of eastern and southern Asia, have an important bearing on interpre­ tations of the course of human evolution. The signifi­ cance of these discoveries has been obscured by the pre­ occupation of some human paleontologists with other human remains either suspected to be of Pleistocene antiquity or questionable due to an extraordinary com· plex of morphological features (the famous hoax of Piltdown). Largely as a consequence of this, there have grown up two main interpretations of man's phylogeny in the Pleistocene, one depending on the possible im­ portance of the suspicious fossils, and the other de­ pending only on the scanty, but well-dated, human fos­ sils enumerated above. The former interpretation recognizes an early, at least earlier, Middle Pleistocene separation of a morphologically modern (sapiens) lineage. The latter postulates progressive transforma· tion of primitive and variable Middle Pleistocene hu­ man populations into diverse Neanderthal and re­ lated, geographically distinctive, groups, as well as into incipiently sapiens peoples. The purpose of this paper is to discuss tI-1e significance of the :Middle Pleistocene human remains from Europe and North Africa for the resolution of this basic problem in the study of human phylogeny. COMPARATIVE STRATIGRAPHY AND ASSOCIATIONS THAMES RIVER: SWANSCOl\'IBE The Swanscombe human remains were recovered from gravel deposits exposed in the Barnfield pit, be­ tween Dartford and Gravesend, on the south bank of the lower Thames River valley. Marston (1937) dis­ covered a complete occipital in June, 1935, and a left parietal in March, 1936. Twenty years later Wymer re­ covered the right parietal of the same individual. The three fragments occurred in the same seam of sandy

Human remains are present in a number of contexts. Some of these are archaeological burial sites, which can comprise individual or mass graves burials. Human remains are usually found buried (or cremated), but they can also be found in museums and in universities, as part of their anatomical collections. Human remains can be found in churches as relics, in ossuaries, and as part of objects. Hence human remains refer to not just a complete skeleton, but also apart of a bone or tooth, hair and mummified remains. In more recent forensic, police or medico-legal cases, human skeletal remains can be found in a number of contexts, such as fire scenes, natural disasters, clandestine graves, or on the surface in open areas (e.g. a woodland). One aspect ofphysical anthropology is that which studies human skeletal remains in order to reconstruct the past, understand human variation, and provide information about the deceased individuals, such as their age at death, sex, ancestry, stature, pathological conditions or traumatic injuries; the remains from medico-legal or police cases fall under the branch offorensic anthropology.

The purpose of this study is to present the current status of research into human remains excavated from archaeological sites in South Korea following its liberation from Japanese colonial rule and to examine the improvements potentially needed to conduct adequate archaeological research on human remains in South Korea in the near future. Human remains, as archaeological data, can provide various types of information, such as the biological characteristics of past groups of people. They also provide direct data that can shed light on many aspects of cultural evolution, and discussions regarding how to properly use data from human remains excavated from archaeological sites in Korea are still in their preliminary stages. Continued developments in science and technology are expected to reveal more information than can currently be obtained from ancient human skeletal remains. To gather information on the cultures of ancient people, which is the ultimate goal of archaeology, there has to be a shared understanding that ancient human skeletal remains must be treated ethically before being viewed simply as potential sources of archaeological data. Further, to increase the value of the collected data, there is a need for a higher degree of interdisciplinary research through mutual collaboration with multiple archaeologists as well as other experts in the fields of anthropology, genetics, and biochemistry.

When human skeletal remains are discovered, there is initially little knowledge or explanation of their background. Executing a thorough osteological analysis of human skeletal remains can identify unknown information and provide new knowledge. Skeletal remains purchased from India until 1985 are believed to stem from a “legal” grave-robbing bone trade. A set of human remains housed at WVWC’s human anatomy lab, purchased in the early 1960s, display an “Origin India” sticker. Due to the origination, we decided to analyze the human remains. The purpose of this study is to conduct a complete osteological analysis on this set of human remains. Data were collected using Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains and The Human Bone Manual. Specific bony features and abnormalities found during the analysis were compared to the given scientific norms to establish pathology. Preliminary anthropometric assessments show lumbosacral scoliosis. The remains appear to belong to a young adult (15-20) but age is difficult to infer due to post mortem alteration of the epiphyses. There is evidence of a potential calcium deficiency, which also affects epiphyseal fusion, which can alter age approximation. Sex appears ambiguous which supports the young age, but leaning male, based on the pubic symphysis and ventral arc. Bone remodeling around the sternum indicates fracture with complete healing. The tibiae show bowing; all articulations appear gracile, though some long bones show early osteoarthritis. Due to this controversial analysis, future research warrants a detailed computed tomography scan.

In the early 1960s, human skeletal remains of several individuals were found in apparent association with late Pleistocene mammals during an excavation at Devil's Den sinkhole in Levy County, Florida. The rarity of these associations in Florida and across the Americas is well-known. Most sites suggesting this antiquity contain diagnostic lithic and bone artifacts, but no human remains. Very little has been published about the Devil's Den site, and the human remains were not available for study until 2003. Unfortunately, neither the human nor animal bones can be dated by the radiocarbon method due to a lack of sufficient surviving collagen. We present new data indicating that the concentrations of rare earth elements preserved in the bones of the human skeletal remains and associated latest Pleistocene faunas are indistinguishable, and significantly greater than a control group of modern mammals. We interpret these results to indicate that the humans found at Devil's Den were contemporaneous with the extinct latest Pleistocene (Rancholabrean) fauna, about 13 ka.

Conducting osteological analyses on human skeletal material enhances our knowledge of these remains. Photos and descriptions are insufficient when communicating the wear, pathology, variation, or nuances of native populations. There are numerous laws, regulations, and financial dilemmas hindering our ability to further research human skeletal remains. Unfortunately, smaller institutions frequently find sophisticated imaging tools to be cost-prohibitive. Photographs lack sufficient detail when attempting to capture and convey an accurate representation of the unique structure, markings, and degenerationof human skeletal remains. Integrating new technology and techniques into this field has the potential to solve these dilemmas. CT scanning and file extracting creates virtual three-dimensional models and stores the information for future study. This removes the time limit surrounding this research (due to mandatory repatriation) and allows for thorough skeletal analyses. To assess this methodology, we conducted complete osteological analyses on two CT replicated human skeletal remains of two individuals uncovered during the archaeological excavation in Cabell County, West Virginia. In previous studies we analyzed the accuracy of the digital data by comparing physical human remains to the digitized versions. We hypothesized that the digital replicas allow a complete osteological analysis of the human skeletal material. Data were collected using human remains digitized on a GE VCT Medical CT scanner. The CT data were extracted into a 3D digital file for analysis while using the Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Results show we can indicate identification of fundamental skeletal anatomy with all skeletal landmarks and basic osteometric measurements.

This chapter focuses on the analysis and identification of human remains, in particular those that are skeletonised. Forensic identification of human remains is a legal duty based on the scientific compatibility of information on missing persons with unidentified human remains. When human skeletal remains are presented, the most important methods for establishing identity include DNA analysis, odontology, comparative X-ray analysis, and skull–photo comparison. Moreover, when human skeletal remains are found, it is mandatory to medically examine them in order to pronounce death and establish, if possible, time, manner, and cause of death where attainable. Once the skeletal remains have been identified as being human, subsequently, the identification of the victim’s characteristics, and cause and manner of death from the skeleton takes place. The identification of human remains is important for both legal and humanitarian reasons. Moreover, a multidisciplinary approach is very important in the case of the recovery of human skeletal remains.

A new set of multiplexed PCR primers has been applied to the analysis of human skeletal remains to determine their efficacy in analyzing degraded DNA. These primer sets, known as Miniplexes, produce shorter amplicons (50-280 base pairs (bp)) than standard short tandem repeat (STR) kits, but still utilize the 13 CODIS STR loci, providing results that are searchable on national DNA databases. In this study, a set of 31 different human remains were exposed to a variety of environmental conditions, extracted, and amplified with commercial and Miniplex DNA typing kits. The amplification efficiency of the Miniplex sets was then compared with the Promega PowerPlex 16 system. Sixty-four percent of the samples generated full profiles when amplified with the Miniplexes, while only 16% of the samples generated full profiles with the Powerplex 16 kit. Complete profiles were obtained for 11 of the 12 Miniplex loci with amplicon sizes less than 200 bp. These data suggest smaller PCR amplicons may provide a useful alternative to mitochondrial DNA for anthropological and forensic analysis of degraded DNA from human skeletal remains.

We present a proposed standard regarding the use of contemporary human skeletal remains in education, training, and research contexts in forensic anthropology. This document was generated by the Anthropology subcommittee of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees for Forensic Science and is currently under review for publication by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences', Academy Standards Board as a joint venture. The OSAC is federally funded and charged with drafting standards documents for various aspects of forensic science in the United States, while the ASB is an accredited Standards Development Organization which reviews and publishes proposed standards documents. The use of real human skeletal remains is crucial for students to learn how to identify human remains and develop various competencies as part of their education and training on their path to becoming professionals; they are also required for research. However, many recent transgressions have highlighted the need for the standardization of practices for the ethical treatment of human remains. We argue that the foundations of the ethical treatment of human remains are: informed consent, deathcare, and service to communities. This document provides a framework for informed consent based on the remains' origin (donated, unclaimed, or unidentified) and how obtained permissions dictate the ethical use of human remains from different contexts. Guidance is also provided for the use of information associated with remains (e.g., images, measurements), data associated with the remains, and their final disposition.

Sample-specific sex estimation in archaeological contexts with commingled human remains: a case study from the Middle Neolithic cave of Bom Santo in Portugal

The calls for repatriation and restitution of African objects and human remains in unlawful Euroamerican custody are gaining global momentum. This paper examines how bioarchaeological analyses are done on legitimately excavated or acquired human remains. Such studies are assessed in tandem with the negative eugenicist practices associated with the looted African human remains that were studied in Europe and America during the periods of slavery and colonization in Africa. It further examines the issues surrounding the repatriation of human remains and discusses the implications of this practice on the ethics and cultural rights of societies in Africa. Excavated human skeletal remains from Begho are examined within their culturalcontext as a Ghanaian case study. By exploring these issues, we are of the view that the complexities in the nature of acquisition and return of human remains requires a holistic comprehension from multiple points of view rather than from a single subjective perspective. Such multiple approaches must include the need for adequate provenance and bioarchaeological research to bear on the contexts and practices associated with the anthropology of death in the societies of origin.

In the 1920s and 1930s Flinders Petrie excavated several sites in British Mandate Palestine (Tell Jemmeh, Tell Fara and Tell el-'Ajjul), encountering numerous burials dating from the Chalcolithic period down to the Ottoman period. The osteological finds were thought to have been discarded, until the authors identified a curated selection of skeletal human remains from these tombs at the Duckworth Laboratory in Cambridge in 2017/2018. Rachael Sparks conducted archival research to explore how the human remains from Petrie's excavations in the Southern Levant were recovered, recorded, curated and studied. This drew on original excavation records, contemporary publications, official and private correspondence, unpublished research notes, and the evidence of the human skeletal remains themselves.Following on this archival investigation, Nina Maaranen conducted skeletal analyses on individuals from Bronze Age contexts - recording crania and mandibles using various non-invasive, macroscopic techniques to estimate age, sex and ancestry. It was established that selected skulls were sent to Karl Pearson's Biometric Laboratory at University College in London for craniometric study as part of wider programmes of research into ancient populations. After the war, changes in the organisation of the Eugenics Department at the University led to the transfer of Pearson's collection of human skulls to the Duckworth Laboratory in Cambridge, where attempts to get the material published were unsuccessful.The current skeletal analysis of the assemblage revealed a preference for adult individuals, in line with the curation motivations of the original investigators. Earlier research on these remains was compared with our new data and contextualised within the theoretical and methodological development of bioanthropology and osteology. Our investigation successfully identified the history of this assemblage, and revealed ethical issues surrounding the collection and subsequent use of some of these human remains, particularly where there may be familial links to modern Palestinian populations.

The rise of more sophisticated forms of analysis has allowed bioarchaeologists to address and answer a wide range of questions regarding past diets, health, mobility, population history, kinship, and taphonomy. However, all of these techniques, e.g. DNA analysis, radiocarbon dating, isotope analysis, and histological analysis require destructive sampling of human remains, which raises ethical issues pertaining to preservation and survival as well as cultural concerns of both past and contemporary societies regarding the post mortem treatment of the dead. This chapter will explore the validity of conducting destructive sampling for the purpose of academic research. It will explore how curators, bioarchaeologists, and archaeologists currently deal with ethical issues surrounding destructive sampling and associated analyses, including the curation of skeletal remains for research purposes, access enquiries, and matters of consent. It is recommended that bioarchaeologists, archaeologists, and curators ensure ethics are at the core of all work carried out when working with human remains. It is thus proposed that these methods should be reserved for focused research questions as opposed to exploratory studies. It is also recommended that researchers and curators receive adequate training in procedures related to destructive sampling as a means of controlling the number of times samples can be taken from bones and teeth which will, in turn, preserve skeletal remains for future generations to study using even more advanced techniques. Following an introduction to the subject matter, this chapter will explore ethics and human remains, technical analyses applied to archaeological human remains, religious and cultural beliefs, and finally makes recommendations for best practice when conducting destructive sampling.

The human skeletal remains from the site of Vunda (AD 800–1600) in Fiji have been interpreted as evidence of cannibalism. The cannibalism hypothesis is tested by examining the modifications of the Vunda skeletal sample. The sample consists of human and non-human bones from a midden context, as well as intact human burials extracted from the midden. Most modifications are more common in the medium mammal sample than in the midden human sample—burning (9% of medium mammal remains and 5% of human remains), cutmarks (4 and 1.5%), percussion pits (1 and 0%), and peeling (2 and 0%)—though these differences are not statistically significant. There are no significant differences between the human burials and the midden human sample in the rates of cutmarks, percussion pits, peeling, or in the pattern of element representation. Therefore the cannibalism hypothesis is not supported at Vunda. Most of the ‘midden’ human remains were probably part of the formal burials. The modifications and context of the Vunda sample are compared with the remains from the nearby, partially contemporaneous site of Navatu (where an inference of cannibalism is supported) to tentatively establish the characteristics of Fijian mortuary rituals versus cannibalism. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Human skeletal remains analyzed from the Peach Orchard Overlook site (41CP25) were recovered from a burial exposed along the eroding shoreline of Lake Bob Sandlin in the mid-1980s. Although the remains appeared to be from a single individual, a minimum of two individuals were represented by the human remains studied by Wilson; there was also one non-human tooth (possibly a deer molar) that will not be discussed in this article. The human remains described here from the Peach Orchard Overlook site are from an Early Caddoan (ca. A.D. 1000-1200) period component, based on the recovery of Crockett Curvilinear Incised and East Incised vessels in association with the dental remains. According to Thurmond, mortuary patterns from the Early Caddoan period in the Big Cypress Creek basin are not well known because few intact burials have been found and studied.