The Need to Conserve Farm Animal Genetic Resources Through Community-Based Management in Africa: Should Policy Makers be Concerned?

The need to conserve farm animal genetic resources in Africa: should policy makers be concerned?

PROBLEM OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONSERVATION OF FARM ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES

Indigenous breeds provide the necessary Genetic diversity needed by modern agriculture as a Means to ensure stability and are vital building blocks for future livestock breeding programmers. Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) conservation, Collection and processing procedures which different widely depending upon the type of germplasm being collected and the donor species. Due to indigenous FAnGR carry genes that enable them to tolerate harsh environments, cope with thorny vegetation in drought-prone areas, walk long distance and repel attacks by diseases and pests. However, these animal resources are constantly being eroded and are nearing extinction. Conservation is an action to ensure that the diversity of farm animal genetic material is being maintained for contribution to food production, Two methods for the conservation of animal genetic resources In-situ conservation refers to conservation of livestock through continued use by livestock keepers in the production system in which the livestock evolved or are now normally found and Ex-situ (in vivo conservation): Effective conservation of genetic resources is possible only if the breeds are identified and documented adequately. Therefore conservation of FAnGR is useful for the sustainable utilization of genetic resources under different production environment and production system. In this regard, valuation of local breeds should consider their major contribution to risk management under the prevailing hard and fluctuating environmental conditions.

For 100s of years, livestock producers have employed various types of selection to alter livestock populations. Current selection strategies are little different, except our technologies for selection have become more powerful. Genetic resources at the breed level have been in and out of favour over time. These resources are the raw materials used to manipulate populations, and therefore, they are critical to the past and future success of the livestock sector. With increasing ability to rapidly change genetic composition of livestock populations, the conservation of these genetic resources becomes more critical. Globally, awareness of the need to steward genetic resources has increased. A growing number of countries have embarked on large scale conservation efforts by using in situ, ex situ (gene banking), or both approaches. Gene banking efforts have substantially increased and data suggest that gene banks are successfully capturing genetic diversity for research or industry use. It is also noteworthy that both industry and the research community are utilizing gene bank holdings. As pressures grow to meet consumer demands and potential changes in production systems, the linkage between selection goals and genetic conservation will increase as a mechanism to facilitate continued livestock sector development.

Farm animal genetic resources face a double challenge. On the one hand the demand for animal products is increasing in developing countries. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) has estimated that demand for meat will double by 2030 (2000 basis) and demand for milk will more than double in this 30-year period. On the other hand, animal genetic resources are disappearing rapidly worldwide. Over the past 15 years, 300 out of 6000 breeds identified by FAO have become extinct, and 1 to 2 breeds disappear every week. FAO has been requested by its member countries to develop and implement a global strategy for the management of farm animal genetic resources. It is important to conserve local breeds because many of them utilise lower quality feed, are more resilient to climatic stress, are more resistant to local parasites and diseases, and represent a unique source of genes for improving health and performance traits of industrial breeds. It is important also to develop and utilise local breeds that are genetically adapted to their environments. Genotype x environment interactions are important especially where extreme environments are involved. Most of these production environments are harsh, with very limited natural and managerial inputs, and they are not limited to developing countries. Animals genetically adapted to these conditions will be more productive at lower costs. They will support food, agriculture and cultural diversity, and will be effective in achieving local food security objectives. In many countries local communities depend on these adapted genetic resources. Their disappearance or drastic modification, for example by crossbreeding, absorption or replacement by exotic breeds, will have tremendous impacts on these human populations. Most breeds at risk are not supported by any established conservation activity or related policy, and breed extinction rates are increasing.

SummaryThe recent call from FAO to take part in the process of preparing the First Report on the State of the World Animal Genetic Resources (SoW) stressed the need to develop management capacity at country level to facilitate the preparation of country reports (CRs). A key role is played by the National Focal Points (NFPs) and the National Coordinators (NCs).A national workshop was held in South Africa in 1998 and a National Committee for Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FanGR) was established. The existing Indigenous Livestock Committee was reviewed and adapted to make it more focused on the management of FAnGR. At the same time a National Coordinator was also identified and the Animal Improvement Institute was nominated as national coordinating institute for FAnGR.The collaboration with some NGOs was strongly suggested, particularly with:a) the Farm Animal Conservation Trust (FACT), to assist with the conservation of farm animal genetic resources. This NGO was modelled on the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) in the United Kingdom and on Rare Breeds International (RBI)b) The South African Stud Book and Livestock Improvement Association (SASB) andc) many Rural Communities and National and Provincial animal genetic resource centresThe institutional frame for AnGR conservation in South Africa is briefly described, together with the aims of the South African conservation activities.

This report presents the status of all Nordic native breeds and offers the first comprehensive overview of the 40-year journey in official Nordic collaboration for conservation Nordic farm animal genetic resources (AnGR). It examines the diversity, distribution, and conservation status of these farm animal breeds. By presenting the current methods used for conservation, it also highlights internal and external pressures in the Nordic region. Conservation efforts over the past 40 years have been fruitful; thus, the report also showcases successful conservation efforts by various stakeholders. The differences in conservation strategies among Nordic countries are also reported, particularly the criteria for classifying breeds as protected. We trust that this report addresses various needs for information and enhances understanding of the continuous necessity to protect native breeds and the critical importance of data collection in these efforts. Let this report inspire readers to recognize and promote the conservation of the national heritage of the Nordic countries.

Genetic resources work and breeding in farm animals received good news from Interlaken, Switzerland in September 2007. The FAO coordinated conference accepted the Global Plan of Action for farm animal genetic resources (visit http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/programmes/en/genetics/documents/Interlaken/GPA_en.pdf). It is not unusual that the final wrangling took place over funding, and a consensus was reached by allocating the financing responsibility across the individual countries, FAO budget and the still unnamed donating organizations. The Plan gives greatest emphasis to the objectives which are grouped into four areas: (i) characterization and invention of animal breeds and populations, (ii) sustainable selection programmes, (iii) maintenance of genetic variation and (iv) strategy papers, institutions and research needed to accomplish all the work. The final outcome is a very useful document which shows how aware the animal production sector is about the importance of genetic variation. The text is encouraging in that it promotes revealing and fully utilizing the entire genetic spectrum available. The goals in the breeding area stem from recent insights into the management of genetic variation and the relationship between production and fitness traits. These goals require collaboration between experts in animal health care and in production technology and building animal production within the scope of available natural resources. The finalization of the Global Plan of Action went surprisingly smoothly. This was probably because the delegates with a background in administration had worked through the same process in the plant sector. They were wise enough to avoid the pitfalls in the process. The success of the decision making may also have grown from the family-like spirit experienced in animal breeding congresses – this time in the valleys of the rivers Simmen and Emmen and watching cows pasturing on mountain slopes and enjoying tasty local cheeses. In the plant sector, the cumbersome questions of the preparation phase were about ownership. The plant genetic resources are seed and cultivation banks funded by public money. According to the Plant Treaty, these reserves can now be accessed free of charge by any breeder. The difficulties of the plant negotiations are indicated by the Treaty still excluding plant species such as soybean, peanut, sugarcane, cotton and tomato. And few countries have not signed the treaty yet. The main farm animal populations carry the variation or all of the potential for selection within them and do not need to resort to separate banks or conservation herds. The genetic resources are part of the breeding programmes and are jointly owned by the animal keepers and breeding organizations. The most popular breeds are enjoying a very active international trade of breeding animals, semen and embryos. The exchange benefits both the seller and buyer and it is done following common business practices. The ownership issues therefore played a minor role in the creation of the Global Plan. A few words of warning should be mentioned, however. The machinery which discussed and wrote the Plant Treaty is not rusty at all. One would believe that the calm animal breeding sector is activated if unnecessary, and complicated regulations are threatening the breeding business, or if the supply of patent applications on animal breeding keeps exceeding the number of genuine inventions in the field. The hottest current topic in animal production is the increased global consumption of milk and meat. This has pushed up the prices of animal products and most likely they will stay high. The permanent news on farm animals relates to diseases – sporadically emerging avian flu, foot and mouth disease and pandemias caused by new insect species penetrating up to the warming north. The big five in the world’s livestock production are cattle, chicken, goat, pig and sheep. The production in industrialized countries is based on few international breeds or hybrids. The production in developing countries is coming from locally adapted strains, which are much less homogenous than assumed by the breed concept generated from the European tradition of strong breed societies. The maintenance of these adaptations needs awareness raising, inventory surveys and knowledge and technology transfer. When the diversity is expressed as number of breeds, the picture for well-surveyed developed countries looks better than it is, even more so, as in some cases the breed changes a name when a country or language border is crossed. The major breeding companies are operating internationally and at the same time clustering into a small effective number of operators. The most extreme one is dairy cattle where there is one major breed Holstein and where the most important males used in different parts of the world are highly related. Consequently the global genetic basis has narrowed drastically and some harmful recessives have been dragged up by popular sires. Now the undesirable phenotypes are commonly visible. The Mendelian defects can be easily eradicated – though sometimes at a high price. The inbreeding depression is creeping in through the accumulation of several tiny effects. It can be removed only by hiding it under dominant alleles. Crossing trials with unrelated breeds continue and the first results with red breeds are encouraging (e.g. Heins et al., three papers in J. Dairy Sci., 89, 2799–2804, 2805–2810 & 4944–4951). It is interesting to see that diversity matters. It is quite obvious that the breeders seek help horizontally among high-producing breeds rather than make compromises with an exotic breed and poor performance, or among local animal populations without believing in the travelling salesman’s glossy brochures. Hence the most feasible strategy for the overall maintenance of genetic resources is the continuation of several competitive selection and breed development programmes. Where do we go from here? When the process towards the Global Plan started, the first step was to collect information from individual countries about the state of animal genetic resources. Until that time the discussion had been on fairly minor points, while now the questions were loaded by challenging the assessment of the main features of animal production and the state and development of breeds and human resources to support the review work and continued improvement. We now have the responses summarized and crystallized into clear guidelines for future national and international work. The conference unanimously augmented the Interlaken Declaration with the text: ‘We recognize the need to promote the development of knowledge, in particular through research, leading to improved sustainable use, development and conservation of animal genetic resources.’

On the basis of data on 337 protected animal products and information contained in available databases, the review paper analyses relations and interaction between protection and conservation of farm animal biodiversity and protection of quality food products of animal origin in the Northern and Mediterranean Members States of the European Union that apply both the system of registration and protection of geographic origin of animal products (PDO and PGI) and the system of conservation of farm animal genetic resources. One third of PDO/PGI cow cheeses, almost all sheep and goat cheeses and all cheeses made of mix of cow, sheep and goat milk, or sheep and goat milk, come from local breeds. The EU system of registration and protection of geographic indication (GI) of origin of quality traditional animal products contributes also to the sustainable utilization of 14% of cattle breeds, 10% of sheep breeds and 11% of goat breeds covered by in situ conservation programs. The system supports the sustainable utilization and conservation of local farm animal genetic resources and contributes to the attainment of multiple policy objectives related to rural development and biodiversity. Therefore, the PDO/PGI system is of particular importance for farm animal biodiversity and for conservation of farm animal genetic resources in the Mediterranean Member States of the European Union.

Historically the UK has not had or needed a defined Government policy on the conservation and utilisation of farm animal genetic resources. However, this situation has changed recently, partly as a result of international efforts, stimulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity, and led by the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, to co-ordinate national strategies for conservation and utilisation of farm animal genetic resources. As part of this international effort, a National Consultative Committee was set up in the UK in 2001. This committee produced the UK Country Report on farm animal genetic resources, which was published in 2002 and submitted to FAO. This paper outlines the structure and recommendations of this report, and discusses government policy on farm animal genetic resources.

North Eastern Region of India is the homeland of diverse animal genetic resources and representing a unique agro-ecosystem with integrated subsistence low input tribal production system where farm animals play an important role in improving the socio-economic status and livelihood of the people. The total livestock and poultry population of this region is about 70.13 million (6.85% of India) of which 92.76% is indigenous population. Among the 183 registered breeds of livestock and poultry in India, this region has 19 registered breeds which include two cattle, one buffalo, two goat, two sheep, four pig, two horse and ponies, one yak, four chicken and one duck breed. Besides many uncharacterized farm animal breeds/populations are reared by tribal farmers in the region, which are described as their local names. The review, enumerates the farm animal genetic resources of this region and their current status, descriptions, unique features, utility and their economic valuation and cultural importance as well as future conservation strategies. Precise and reliable estimation and evaluation of different economic and climate resilient traits of indigenous farm animal germplasm and their economic valuation, genetic characterization, documentation and registration is highly warranted. It has also suggested and proposed a model for the implementation of strict policy from central and state agencies to facilitate in situ conservation with active community participation and ex situ conservation through application of modern biotechnological tool, which is warranted to maintain the diversity of farm animals in north east region of India.

Livestock production is the most important component of northern European agriculture and contributes to and will be affected by climate change. Nevertheless, the role of farm animal genetic resources in the adaptation to new agro-ecological conditions and mitigation of animal production’s effects on climate change has been inadequately discussed despite there being several important associations between animal genetic resources and climate change issues. The sustainability of animal production systems and future food security require access to a wide diversity of animal genetic resources. There are several genetic questions that should be considered in strategies promoting adaptation to climate change and mitigation of environmental effects of livestock production. For example, it may become important to choose among breeds and even among farm animal species according to their suitability to a future with altered production systems. Some animals with useful phenotypes and genotypes may be more useful than others in the changing environment. Robust animal breeds with the potential to adapt to new agro-ecological conditions and tolerate new diseases will be needed. The key issue in mitigation of harmful greenhouse gas effects induced by livestock production is the reduction of methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants. There are differences in CH4 emissions among breeds and among individual animals within breeds that suggest a potential for improvement in the trait through genetic selection. Characterization of breeds and individuals with modern genomic tools should be applied to identify breeds that have genetically adapted to marginal conditions and to get critical information for breeding and conservation programs for farm animal genetic resources. We conclude that phenotyping and genomic technologies and adoption of new breeding approaches, such as genomic selection introgression, will promote breeding for useful characters in livestock species.

The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, was initially established by FAO, in 1983, to address plant genetic resources (PGR). It became the primary permanent international forum for governments to discuss, negotiate and decide on matters specifically relevant to genetic resources for food and agriculture (GRFA). Over time, the mandate of the Commission expanded and now it deals with all sectors of GRFA, plant, animal, forest, aquatic, and microbial and invertebrates genetic resources, covering the vast scope of biodiversity for food and agriculture. The Commission also considers a number of cross-cutting topics, including food security, nutrition and human health, mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, access to genetic resources and benefit sharing (ABS); as well as digital sequence information (DSI) on GRFA and biotechnologies for the characterization, sustainable use and conservation of GRFA. The work of the Commission on animal genetic resources (AnGR) initiated in 1997, resulted in preparation of the first-ever Report on the State of the World AnGR in 2007; and led to negotiation and adoption of the Global Plan of Action for AnGR (GPA) also in 2007. The endorsement of the GPA by the FAO Conference provided for commitments at the national level. The Commission monitors progress in the implementation of the GPA and status and trends of AnGR on a regular and biennial basis. Preparation of the Second State of the World Report on AnGR in 2015, further strengthened commitment to implement the 2007 GPA. The Commission plays an important role in supporting animal breeding and the livestock sector. It was instrumental in building the knowledge base on AnGR, creating a framework for action, and supporting measures for its implementation. It has overseen important initiatives, including preparation of various technical guidelines and building global awareness of the importance of AnGR as well as the specific characteristics of the AnGR sector. The work of the Commission is helping to ensure the conservation and sustainable utilization of GRFA, the genetic base for food production, thereby contributing to food security and agriculture development.

SummaryThis overview analyses the key drivers of change in the global livestock sector and assesses how they are influencing current trends and future prospects in the world's diverse livestock production systems and market chains; and what are their consequent impacts on the management of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. The trends are occurring in both developing and industrialized countries, but the responses are different. In the developing world, the trends are affecting the ability of livestock to contribute to improving livelihoods and reducing poverty as well as the use of natural resources. In the industrialized world, the narrowing animal genetic resource base in industrial livestock production systems raises the need to maintain a broader range of animal genetic resources to be able to deal with future uncertainties, such as climate change and zoonotic diseases.This chapter discusses:• What are the global drivers of change for livestock systems? Economic development and globalization; changing market demands and the “livestock revolution”; environmental impacts including climate change; and science and technology trends.• How are the livestock production systems responding to the global drivers of change? Trends in the three main livestock production systems (industrial, crop-livestock and pastoral systems); the range and rate of changes occurring in different systems and how these affect animal genetic resources. The implications are that breeds cannot adapt in time to meet new circumstances. Hence new strategies and interventions are necessary to improve the management of animal genetic resources in situations where these genetic resources are most at risk.• What are the implications for animal genetic resources diversity and for future prospects of their use? - Industrial livestock production systems are expected to have a limited demand for biodiversity, while crop-livestock and pastoral systems will rely on biodiversity to produce genotypes of improved productivity under changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. All systems will rely on biodiversity, albeit to varying degrees, to cope with expected climate change.• What immediate steps are possible to improve animal genetic resources characterization, use and conservation? Appropriate institutional and policy frameworks are required to improve animal genetic resources management and these issues are being addressed at national and intergovernmental levels, in a process led by FAO to promote greater international collaboration on animal genetic resources. Based on an analysis of the current situation, the continuing loss of indigenous breeds and new developments in science and technology, there are several complementary actions that can begin to improve the management of animal genetic resources and maintain future options in an uncertain world.These are summarized here as:a. “Keep it on the hoof” - Encouraging the continuing sustainable use of traditional breeds and in situ conservation by providing market-driven incentives, public policy and This paper has benefited from inputs from several reviewers and other contributors, and we thank all for their thoughtful insights. We acknowledge the contributions of our colleagues at FAO, particularly Irene Hoffmann, Dafydd Pilling and Henning Steinfeld, and at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI): Ade Freeman, Mario Herrero, Olivier Hanotte, Steve Kemp, Sandy McClintock, Sara McClintock, Margaret MacDonald-Levy, Susan MacMillan, Grace Ndungu, An Notenbaert, Mwai Okeyo and Robin Reid. other support to enable livestock keepers to maintain genetic diversity in their livestock populations.b. “Move it or lose it” - Enabling access to and the safe movement of animal genetic resources within and between countries, regions and continents is a key factor in use, development and conservation of animal genetic resources globally.c. “Match breeds to environments” - Understanding the match between livestock populations, breeds and genes with the physical, biological and economic landscape. This “landscape livestock genomics” approach offers the means to predict the genotypes most appropriate to a given environment and, in the longer term, to understand the genetic basis of adaptation of the genotype to the environment.d. “Put some in the bank” — New technologies make ex situ, in vitro conservation of animal genetic resources feasible for critical situations and are a way to provide long-term insurance against future shocks.The multiple values, functions and consequences of livestock production systems and their rapid rate of change lead to divergent interests within and between countries. Conversely, the uncertainty about the implications of rapid, multifaceted global change for each livestock production system and the resulting future changes in the required genetic make-up of animal genetic resources make collective action to tackle conservation of animal genetic resources a long-term, global public good. Conserving animal genetic resources will not by itself solve these problems, but it is an important first step towards maintaining future options.Advances in science and the technology, in areas such as reproductive technology, genomics and spatial analysis, as well as progress in conceptualization of global public good production for the future management of animal genetic resources, should enable the international community to address both the short- and long-term challenges in innovative ways.

SummaryRare Breeds International (RBI) is the global non-governmental organization (NGO) concerned with the conservation of animal genetic resources (AnGR). It works in conjunction with FAO and with other organizations associated with livestock production. RBI members form a grassroots network that is rich in experience and knowledge of native breeds and affiliated national organizations maintain a valuable database of AnGR. Information is disseminated through major international conferences which are held at intervals of three years and through annual regional meetings. The cumulative expertise of the RBI membership facilitates a wide variety of projects, which range from policy interaction with governmental agencies to emergency rescue action and breeding programmes for relic breeds. RBI communicates mainly through publication of proceedings of major conferences and also by dedicated and linked websites.