The Late Loyalists: Northern Reflections of the Early American Republic

Abstract

American Revolution divided North America, creating an independent republic south of a new border that preserved British Empire to north. Far from retreating across Atlantic, that empire took on a new complexity and dynamism in its Canadian provinces, thanks to influx of at least 50,000 Loyalist refugees fleeing from Revolution. American historians, however, rarely examine northern half of revolution's legacy-despite its comparative potential for illuminating early republic. To that end, this essay sets American nation in a broader, continental context of multiple experiments in political culture during postrevolutionary generation.1For that comparison, province of Upper Canada (now Ontario) is especially promising, for most of its inhabitants were American born. And American boundary invited a steady exchange of migrants and information, which obliged colonists and visitors recurrently to evaluate differences that a revolution and a border could make. Finally, political institutions and economic policies of Upper Canada were designed by Britons and Loyalists who had fought against Revolution and who meant to prevent its recurrence within their province. By reading Upper Canada's constitution and early history (through War of 1812), we can recover lessons of revolution for those who lost. And we can measure republican consequences of victory south of new border.This essay argues that Upper Canada was a counterrevolutionary polity that, by its contrast, highlights transforming liberal consequences of republicanism generated by American Revolution. By liberal I mean a pluralistic society premised on equal individual rights for citizens to seek private property and political power. Republicanism and liberalism may have had distinctions as political theories, but I find none in political practice in North America after Revolution. Americans looked to a republic to safeguard their liberal aspirations. To their north, British designed Upper Canada to discourage such aspirationsexcept within narrow bounds carefully patrolled by executive power.2In Canada Constitutional Act of 1791, Parliament established a new colony on northern and western shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario and along upper reaches of St. Lawrence River. Parliament created Upper Canada by dividing immense, old province of Quebec along Ottawa River, above Montreal, defining lower reaches of St. Lawrence valley as sister and superior province of division was cultural as well as geographic: French speakers predominated in Lower Canada while English speakers prevailed in Upper Canada. Based in Quebec City, capital of Lower Canada, a governor general held military command of both provinces (as well as over Maritime provinces to east). His subordinate, a lieutenant governor, exercised executive power in Upper Canada.3The new province reflected lessons of American Revolution, as understood by men who rued its success. Led by secretary of State William W. Grenville, British examined the constitution of our former Colonies ... in order that we may profit by our experience there, & avoid, if possible, in Government of Canada, those defects which hastened independence of our antient possession in America. That retrospective found excessive colonial democracy because no care was taken to preserve a due mixture of Monarchical & Aristocratical parts of British Constitutions. Grenville and his associates designed Upper Canada to serve as an antidote to Revolution, as an alternative to American republic, and as model for a revived British empire. In 1791, colony's first lieutenant governor, John Graves Simcoe, explained, The establishment of British Constitution in this Province offers best method gradually to counteract, and ultimately to destroy or to disarm [American] spirit of democratic subversion. …