Abstract
Hollow nanostructures are ranked among the top materials for applications in various modern technological areas including energy storage devices, catalyst, optics and sensors. The last years have witnessed increasing interest in the Kirkendall effect as a versatile route to fabricate hollow nanostructures with different shapes, compositions and functionalities. Although the conversion chemistry of nanostructures from solid to hollow has reached a very advanced maturity, there is still much to be discovered and learned on this effect. Here, the recent progress on the use of the Kirkendall effect to synthesize hollow nanospheres and nanotubes is reviewed with a special emphasis on the fundamental mechanisms occurring during such a conversion process. The discussion includes the oxidation of metal nanostructures (i.e., nanospheres and nanowires), which is an important process involving the Kirkendall effect. For nanospheres, the symmetrical and the asymmetrical mechanisms are both reviewed and compared on the basis of recent reports in the literature. For nanotubes, in addition to a summary of the conversion processes, the unusual effects observed in some particular cases (e.g., formation of segmented or bamboo-like nanotubes) are summarized and discussed. Finally, we conclude with a summary, where the prospective future direction of this research field is discussed.
Highlights
In the years following the discovery of the diffusion of gold in solid lead by Roberts-Austen in 1896 [1,2], it was believed that atomic diffusion in metals could occur by a direct exchange of atomic position (Figure 1a) or by a ring mechanism in which the atoms exchange their positions by following a ring path (Figure 1b) [3]
The recent progress on the use of the Kirkendall effect to synthesize hollow nanospheres and nanotubes is reviewed with a special emphasis on the fundamental mechanisms occurring during such a conversion process
In 1950, Mehl acknowledged the validity of the Kirkendall effect [3] and one year later he and his student DaSilva published new data validating the reproducibility of the Kirkendall effect for different metal alloys [6]
Summary
This article is part of the Thematic Series "Atomic scale interface design and characterisation: Theory – Structure and dynamics"
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