The iron paleoredox proxies: A guide to the pitfalls, problems and proper practice

Abstract

Oceanic anoxia—including euxinic settings defined by the presence of water column hydrogen sulfide (H2S)—is minor in the ocean today. Such conditions, however, were common or even dominant in the past, particularly during the Precambrian and Phanerozoic oceanic anoxic events. The latter are associated with massive petroleum and mineral reserves and many of the major extinction events in the paleontological record. Our ability to recognize ancient oxygen deficiencies relies strongly on paleontological data viewed in combination with geochemical tracers, and geochemistry is typically our only window onto ancient marine redox during the Precambrian when diagnostic skeletal and behaviorial traces of oxygen-dependent animals are mostly missing. So far no approach has gained wider acceptance than the iron proxies, which rely generally on quantification of the extent to which reactive iron (as oxides principally) is converted to pyrite. The promise of these approaches lies in part with the relative ease of measurement, but it is this ease and the corresponding widespread use that has also led to misuses. Much of the recent confidence in the iron paleoredox proxies lies with sophisticated deconstruction of the reactive Fe pool via mineral-calibrated wet chemical speciation. These validations and calibrations, mostly in the modern ocean, expose the challenges, while at the same time opening other doors of opportunity as the catalog of controlling factors extends beyond water column redox to include sedimentation rate, sedimentary Fe remobilization, signals of oscillatory redox, and hydrothermal versus other primary Fe inputs to the ocean, among other factors. Also key is a deep understanding of the limitations imposed—or at least the due diligence required—as linked to mineral transformations during burial and metamorphism. This review seeks to highlight many of the key issues, including appropriate sample choices, as a roadmap for those keen to apply Fe proxies in their studies of ancient oceans and their relationships to co-evolving life. Among the critical messages to take away is the value of robust Fe-based measures of local redox that, when combined with elemental mass balances and isotopic proxies dependent on those local conditions, can shed light on the global redox state of the oceans through time and related implications for the history of life on Earth.