The Interaction Between Evolutionary and Historical Processes Produces the Gender Difference in Depressive Prevalence: Hypotheses, Evidence, and Need for Additional Research

Abstract

Much has been written about the possibility that multiple distinct phenotypes are currently classified as the single disorder major depression and about the gender difference in depressive prevalence. Here, research on the evolution of depression, on historical changes influencing women, and on the epidemiology of depression is reviewed. Much evidence suggests the existence of a phenotype of depression involving anxiety and somatic symptomatology that becomes prevalent among women at adolescence leading to a gender difference in overall depression as currently classified. The evolutionary pathway to “somatic” depression is based in animal dominance hierarchies that transformed into status/prestige hierarchies when humans developed a conceptual self. The reproductive fitness of tribes and cultures was increased when their members were highly motivated to achieve so humans evolved positive emotions of pride when they lived up to the standards of their parents and of their tribe and negative emotions of depression and anxiety associated with a sense of devaluation when they did not. After the Industrial Revolution, the change in women’s roles and aspirations was so rapid in evolutionary/historical perspective that many contemporary women face barriers that prevent them from living up to these altered standards of achievement/respect that lead to feelings of devaluation and thus to somatic depression. Additional research is suggested in order to further test these hypotheses.