Abstract
Simple SummaryCentral America is a region that possesses distinct ecological and socioeconomic characteristics, making it increasingly vulnerable to vector-borne diseases. The emergence and resurgence of these diseases has been linked to environmental changes driven by human activities, particularly land use changes associated with deforestation, forest degradation, and urbanization. However, the effects of these environmental modifications on the transmission dynamics and the increase of infection risks are not well understood in Central America where information is limited and scattered. In this article, we review and analyze the current knowledge and potential impacts of deforestation and urbanization on the risk and transmission dynamics of the most relevant mosquito-borne and tick-borne diseases in Central America. Disease events, such as the recent Zika and dengue epidemics, and the uneven progress towards regional malaria elimination highlight the need to increase awareness regarding the complex ecological interactions and environmental changes taking place in this region and how this information could be used to improve prevention and control strategies.Central America is a unique geographical region that connects North and South America, enclosed by the Caribbean Sea to the East, and the Pacific Ocean to the West. This region, encompassing Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, and Nicaragua, is highly vulnerable to the emergence or resurgence of mosquito-borne and tick-borne diseases due to a combination of key ecological and socioeconomic determinants acting together, often in a synergistic fashion. Of particular interest are the effects of land use changes, such as deforestation-driven urbanization and forest degradation, on the incidence and prevalence of these diseases, which are not well understood. In recent years, parts of Central America have experienced social and economic improvements; however, the region still faces major challenges in developing effective strategies and significant investments in public health infrastructure to prevent and control these diseases. In this article, we review the current knowledge and potential impacts of deforestation, urbanization, and other land use changes on mosquito-borne and tick-borne disease transmission in Central America and how these anthropogenic drivers could affect the risk for disease emergence and resurgence in the region. These issues are addressed in the context of other interconnected environmental and social challenges.
Highlights
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) remain an important public health problem worldwide, in tropical and subtropical regions, and they are becoming more prevalent in recent years
Despite its marked preference toward dogs, this tick bites humans and can do so frequently in rural and urban areas in Central America [297,420]. Considering that these ticks are usually found in urban environments or areas that have been disturbed, deforestation and other land use changes leading to human settlements and increased dog populations could result in the establishment of this species where it was not present before human activity, as it has been observed in Panama [405]
The recent epidemic emergence of several VBDs in Central America highlight the importance of elucidating the specific regional factors that drive their emergence, which could lead to the development of strategies to prevent their further spread and establishment
Summary
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) remain an important public health problem worldwide, in tropical and subtropical regions, and they are becoming more prevalent in recent years. Recognized anthropogenic drivers of VBD emergence and resurgence include demographic changes (e.g., global population movements and growth, unplanned and uncontrolled urbanization), socioeconomic changes (e.g., modern transportation and commerce, human encroachment on natural disease foci), illegal activities (e.g., illegal logging and cattle ranching, illegal drug trafficking), accelerated exploitation of natural resources (e.g., changes in land use, forest degradation, reduction in biodiversity, agricultural practices), changes in host susceptibility and pathogen adaptation (e.g., increased movement of humans and animals, pathogen genetic variability), degradation of public health infrastructure (e.g., lack of effective vector control, disease surveillance, and prevention programs), and climate. The presence and interactions of numerous physical and socioeconomic factors in the region amplifies its vulnerability to the emergence and resurgence of several VBDs [6] The purpose of this descriptive review is to profile the potential impact of deforestation, forest degradation, and urbanization on mosquito-borne and tick-borne disease transmission dynamics in Central America and how these anthropogenic drivers could affect risk for disease emergence and resurgence in the region. Understanding the causes and potential impacts of deforestation and urbanization on VBD transmission in Central America is essential to the improvement of current disease prevention and control approaches
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