Abstract
Predator-prey interactions play a key life history role, as animals cope with changing predation risk and opportunities to hunt prey. It has recently been shown that the hunting success of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) targeting fish larvae is dependent on both the size of the prey and the prior exposure of its species to stickleback predation. The purpose of the current study was to identify the behavioural predator-prey interactions explaining the success or failure of sticklebacks hunting larvae of three potential prey species [roach (Rutilus rutilus), perch (Perca fluviatilis) and whitefish (Coregonus wartmannii)] in a 3D environment. Trials were carried out for each prey species at four different size classes in a standardised laboratory setup and were recorded using a slow motion, stereo camera setup. 75 predator-prey interactions including both failed and successful hunts were subject to the analysis. 3D track analysis indicated that sticklebacks applied different strategies. Prey with less complex predator escape responses, i.e. whitefish larvae, were hunted using a direct but stealthy approach ending in a lunge, while the behaviourally more complex roach and perch larvae were hunted with a faster approach. A multivariate logistic regression identified that slow average speed and acceleration of the prey in the initial stages of the hunt increased the probability of stickleback success. Furthermore, predators adjusted their swimming direction more often when hunting larger whitefish compared to smaller whitefish. The results suggest that appropriate and adequately timed avoidance behaviours, which vary between prey species and ontogenetic stages, significantly increase the chances of outmanoeuvring and escaping stickleback predation. Small whitefish larvae can reach similar levels of swimming performance compared to older conspecifics, but display ineffective anti-predator behaviours, resulting in higher hunting success for sticklebacks. Thus, the development of appropriate anti-predator behaviours depending on size appears to be the crucial factor to escaping predation.
Highlights
Predator-prey interactions play a dominant role in the life histories of wild animals, which experience changing predation risks and/or changing opportunities to hunt throughout their ontogeny [1]
To evaluate the speed of the prey, an additional 18 tracks of failed and incomplete hunts were analysed from size classes where no successful hunts took place (S1 Table)
The smallest size classes (20.5–32.1 mm) primarily relied on simple direct flight responses, which were followed by the predator
Summary
Predator-prey interactions play a dominant role in the life histories of wild animals, which experience changing predation risks and/or changing opportunities to hunt throughout their ontogeny [1]. There are several central processes which can optimize these strategies: I) animals may have predispositions in anxiety and boldness that increase vigilance or responsiveness; II) animals may have sensory or central “templates” that aid precociously predator detection; III) animals acquire knowledge of their prey and predators through experience. The first two mechanisms play an especially important and often decisive role in initial interactions between predator and prey. The latter mechanism will refine these responses with age in both protagonists to increase their chances of survival to reproductive ages [11, 12]
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