The human exposome and health in the Anthropocene.

Abstract

‘Man is a part of nature, and his war against nature is inevitably a war against himself’ ― Rachel Carson. The term Anthropocene describes the current period, when the biophysical systems of Earth are being significantly altered by human activities. Although the great acceleration of anthropogenic influences began in the 20th century, the Industrial Revolution has often been proposed as the start of this period. Burning fossil fuels on a large scale, which was the motor of the Industrial Revolution, has disrupted the global climate, with far-reaching consequences for life on Earth. In the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report, it is stated with high confidence that human activities have significantly contributed to an increase in the global mean temperature of approximately 1°C above pre-industrial levels, and with medium confidence that trends in intensity and frequency of some climate and weather extremes have been detected, during which approximately 0.5°C of global warming occurred.1 The average global temperature will continue to rise if current greenhouse gas emissions continue. The Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) recently reported that the 5 warmest years on record have all occurred in the past 5 years, and that 2010–19 was the warmest decade recorded. C3S also reported that 2019 was globally the second warmest year and that atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations continued to rise.2 During 2019 there was extraordinary ice-melt in Greenland and wildfires consumed millions of acres in Siberia, Alaska and Australia.3,4 Brazil’s national institute for space research (INPE) also reported fires burning at a record rate in the Amazon rainforest. The INPE reported an 80% increase in deforestation compared with that in the same period in 2018. This not only threatens local ecosystems but may affect the entire planet, because intact forest absorbs and holds large amounts of CO2.5 The recent Living Planet Report by the World Wildlife Fund and Zoological Society of London provides further evidence that unsustainable human activity is threatening the planet’s natural systems.6 The report shows an overall decline of 60% in species’ population sizes between 1970 and 2014 because of factors such as overexploitation, habitat destruction (e.g. agricultural land expansion and logging), environmental pollution and climate change. The current species extinction rates are between 100 and 1000 times higher than previous background rate.6 The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List 2019 reported that more than 27 000 species are threatened with extinction (27% of all animal, fungi and plant species assessed).7 A recent study of plants that have become extinct since Carl Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum has concluded that the number of known seed plant extinctions is more than four times that of the Red List.8 Biodiversity is a vital part of Earth’s past, present and future, and a key indicator of planetary health. The ongoing dramatic decline in biodiversity is therefore a problem, and underlying causes must be better understood for effective species conservation and human well-being. The concept of planetary health focuses on the intricate link between human health and the health of natural systems within the biosphere.9–11 Loss of biological diversity alters ecosystems functions and thereby reduces the ability to provide society with the goods and services, including food, necessary to flourish.9–11 The emergence of viruses such as the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), and global environmental change, wildlife, animal markets and food systems (which contribute largely to carbon emissions) are also interrelated.12,13 To increase awareness of current environmental problems and how complex interactions among climate change, infectious agents, environmental pollutants and other stressors, i.e. the exposome, may affect human health, this multidisciplinary review summarizes important scientific literature and discusses actions for a successful transformation to a safe, sustainable society.