Abstract
The human gut microbiome (bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea) is a complex and diverse ecosystem. It plays an important role in human health, but is involved in several intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. Most research to date has focused on the role of bacteria, while studies focusing on fungi (also referred to as “mycobiome” or “fungome”) are still in its infancy. In this review, we focus on the existing literature available about the gut mycobiome with an emphasis on compositional mycobiome changes associated with liver diseases, the impact on pathogenesis of disease, and its potential use as therapeutic targets. We also provide insights into current methodologies of studying mycobiome, and we highlight the interkingdom interactions in the context of disease and how they affect health of the host. Herein, by focusing on the gut mycobiome, this review provides novel insights and directions for liver research.
Highlights
The human gastrointestinal tract harbors trillions of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea [1, 2]
Most research to date has focused on the role of bacteria, while studies focusing on fungi are still in its infancy
Recent data highlight that some commensal fungal species, especially Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Malassezia spp., are potent inducers of antigen-specific T-helper cell responses in humans that are altered in inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) [27] and skin disorders [28], which may contribute to disease pathogenesis
Summary
The human gastrointestinal tract harbors trillions of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea [1, 2]. The healthy human gut mycobiome is lower in diversity and density, and it is dominated by Saccharomyces, Malassezia, and Candida [12, 13]. Studies of the human mycobiome have been focused on several body sites including skin [14], gut [15], lung [16], and oral cavity [17]. Fungi can be beneficial to host immunity, but they can have deleterious effects under disease conditions. Recent data highlight that some commensal fungal species, especially Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Malassezia spp., are potent inducers of antigen-specific T-helper cell responses in humans that are altered in inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) [27] and skin disorders [28], which may contribute to disease pathogenesis. It is possible that mycobiota is under the selection by the
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