The gig economy and employment in tourism in Southern Africa

Industry experts estimate that there could be over 15 million gig economy workers in India. Despite its massive potential, India’s gig economy is still at a very nascent stage. Due to the recent pandemic, many companies were forced to trim staff and hire gig workers due to uncertain market conditions. This has dispelled many reservations about the dependability and long-term viability of a gig workforce. India can emerge as one of the largest markets for flexible staffing globally. It is therefore apt that a research article traces the Indian gig economy and draws valid inferences for the human resource (HR) function. The objective of this article is to review and synthesise themes and narratives around gig economy from the perspective of people’s function. The study analyses the concepts in two phases. In phase I, we summarise the key concepts from academic research. We, further, extract the opinions of business professionals; in phase II, using text mining techniques in SPSS Modeler Text of qualitative data discussed in the Indian context is used to come up with the gig economy narrative in India. This inductive research draws inferences from secondary data available in newspapers, magazines, blogs, research journals and comments posted on social media like LinkedIn and Twitter. The findings of this article reveal how gig economy has shaped the employer–employee relationship. While doing so, we present the opportunities and challenges for the gig workers, the influence of the pandemic in fuelling the gig economy and perception of the organisations. There is more positive sentiment and optimism around the gig economy in India. The role of the managers will transform in this model, and functions like learning and development and performance management will undergo vital changes. Creating a sense of inclusion and belongingness among the gig workers will become a priority. Therefore, to become a stable employment model, there is a need to create a robust gig ecosystem where expectations of all the important stakeholders are understood and met. Implication: The union budget 2021–2022 for the first time acknowledged the gig economy and announced social security benefits for the gig workers. It is time for HR and policymakers to redesign policies and processes that will not just accommodate gig workers into the formal employment but also foster inclusion. The exhaustive review of literature provides a holistic picture of gig economy to scholars interested in the field of gig economy, psychological contract, and diversity and inclusion. Practitioners can use insights from this research study to manage, engage and retain their gig talent.

The term gig economy came in vogue during 2009 financial crisis. It reached its vortex with the outbreak of corona pandemic. Recently several literature, articles and report have projected Gig economy as an effective answer to gigantic problem of unemployment in several countries of the world. This present study on Gig Economy aims to define gig economy, discuss its unique features highlighting the relevance of growth of Gig economy in state of Bihar in creation of employment opportunities and to which extent it is justified. The present study throws light on the differences existing in work culture of gig workers, self-employed workers, organised sector workers and unorganised sector workers. As a generator of large employment opportunities distinctive features of gig economy have been analysed juxtaposed to the problems and hurdles faced by women in Bihar while entering the gig economy. The prime concern today is why this new category of workers emerged known as gig workers. The answer lies in changing needs of the human being, changing environment propounded by corona pandemic and technological advancement. The United States is the largest labour market for gig workers. The digitalisation and outbreak of corona pandemic accelerated the gigification of large economies. The present study uses primary and secondary data to corroborate whether gig economy is capable of creating employment opportunities in Bihar or especially for women. With the above objective in mind the research is based on field work, conducted through survey questionnaire of around 200 respondents in different location from 5 districts of Bihar. The questions were formulated to capture and assess the socio-economic background of respondents, penetration of digital tools and digital awareness. Questions were structured to obtain information regarding monthly income, ownership of mobile phone smartphone or feature phone, access to Internet service, knowledge of operating mobile banking to reach to correct conclusions.The article also suggests few corrective measures to overcome difficulties faced by women in Bihar. To avail benefits of gig economy Bihar needs to work on basic parameters of illiteracy, digital literacy, change in orthodox thinking especially towards women and thus bridging the rural urban gap and at the same time measures should be taken for building financial and credit facilities. Benefit of the new gig economy can only be harnessed when there is change in traditional mindset of Bihar and expansion of internet users in Bihar. Not only number of internet users are lowest in Bihar but there is large digital gender gap too. Gig economy can become a source of increasing livelihood if the working population is digitally literate. In Bihar 76% of population is still engaged in agriculture. However the job creating sectors or opportunities offered by gig economy as discussed require skills that are more suited to urban areas . Job opportunities offered or created by gig economy require that minimum level of literacy which is not suitable foe workforce in Bihar as we know that Bihar has lowest female literacy and Bihar doesn't rank high in male literacy too.A more conscious, streamlined and targeted effort by leaders and population of Bihar can only help women to harness the benefits of gig economy and take women on the path of economic prosperity.

This article argues that the gig economy is an exploitative extension of the informal economy. With its decentralised promise of individual entrepreneurship, I will argue that it places undue burdens on the worker as an ‘independent contractor’ that would otherwise be upheld by the employer. I will do so by applying a Marcusian analysis of the gig economy, highlighting two primary concerns. First, Marcuse’s critique of ‘industrial rationality’ explains how industrial rationality creates the framework for – and justification of – exploitation within the gig economy. Second, as Wendy Brown notes, following Marcuse, the gig economy promotes the neoliberal notion of ‘self-care’ as a means of absolving corporations from any duty towards their employees. More specifically, ‘self-care’ within the gig economy forms part of the exploitation of workers within the informal economy which is often viewed as a buffer to absorb the unemployed within a neoliberal society. Building on this critique, I refer to the work of Byung-Chul Han and his concept of ‘self-exploitation,’ arguing that the gig economy should be considered an extension of an informal economy, in which workers are left in a perpetual state of servitude.

How do low-skilled migrant workers navigate restrictive gig economies in illiberal host states of the Global South? Despite the growing gig economy, scholars have yet to examine the linkage between the politics of the gig economy and migrant resilience in illiberal host states in the Global South. Using a single case study of freelance Filipina domestic workers in the UAE (N = 20), I argue that, despite facing legal and economic risks (penalties), freelance migrant workers have produced an informal freelancing visa system to contest the formal and hierarchical segmentation of the gig economy via three diverse strategies: co-optation, tapping and brokering. These evasive social coping strategies mirror their collective resistance against structural labour exploitation and reinforce their autonomous role in the social (re)production of community solidarity within informal gig economies. Overall, this study contributes to empirical and theoretical discourse on the politics of illiberal migration management and the gig economy by featuring female migrant freelancers’ complex social agency within illiberal gig economies in the Global South.

PurposeThis article concerns itself with generating a means of understanding platform-mediated work in South Africa through how it is organized on OnlyFans. It explores how Black South African youth are using digital platforms to negotiate their labour market participation in a country that has one of the highest unemployment rates in the world.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is derived from fieldwork conducted between 2022 and 2023 in pursuance of a doctorate, in African Feminist Studies, at the University of Cape Town. The methods, such as in-depth semi-structured interviews, employed fall within Qualitative Research. Data were analysed through the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) – which is theoretically grounded in Hermeneutics (the interpretation) and Phenomenology (of experience).FindingsThe findings highlight the work done to create content and the social media integration that goes into building a following, marketing content, cultivating relationships with subscribers and managing online presence across social media platforms. This interrelated process requires both entrepreneurial acumen and digital marketplace literacies because platform or Gig economies shift managerial responsibilities of developing performance areas to the workers. The paper contrasts the promise of autonomy and empowerment with the realities of competition and algorithmic control by highlighting the importance of reputation management, the complexities of trust, and the persistent need to balance platform work with other jobs and domestic responsibilities. Finally, the article considers the potential for delayed gratification through residual income generation on OnlyFans. It posits the possibility of the revenue payable to creators accumulating beyond initial distribution challenges the overarching theme of income insecurity within platforms, because the services platform labourers offer can have more than one utility value, when their labouring circulates beyond the point of initial sale to the established audience, further drawing in new audiences who consume the labouring in perpetuity and accruing residuals that can enrich platform labourers in an uncertain future date.Research limitations/implicationsThe stigma that is, unfortunately, attached to sex work likely influenced who was willing to participate in this research and the extent to which participants were willing to share certain aspects of their experiences. Participants’ decisions to use pseudonyms across digital sexual spaces and to selectively disclose their OnlyFans work to their interpersonal networks highlight the sensitivity of the topic and the potential for social desirability bias in their responses. They might have been hesitant to fully disclose negative experiences or the full extent of risks they face due to fear of judgement or repercussions.Practical implicationsThe research highlights the need for Digital Marketplace Literacies to inform regulation. Cultivating these literacies could potentially help workers connect their precarity to platform affordances. The research challenges the notion of absolute precarity by raising the existence of continuous income generation through residuals. The research criticizes how platforms provide economic opportunities, particularly for marginalized youth who bear the burdens of social reproduction but face systemic exclusion from the formal economy, whilst also making platform labourers adhere to stringent terms and conditions, algorithmic management and constant pressure to labour online and offline.Originality/valueTo date, there is no research on how the emergence and growth of OnlyFans is occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. This article seeks to fill that gap in by exploring the lived experiences of OnlyFans creators domiciled in South Africa, who create content and distribute it across digital sexual spaces, to understand how the opportunities and risks that have been associated with platform and Gig economies manifest in this context. It elaborates on how OnlyFans content creators establish themselves against the institutional cultures of Gig and platform economies which embed informal labour dynamics into a landscape that is further structured by rigid terms of service. To do so, they must balance the risks, such as hypervisibility, algorithmic management and unpaid labour, posed with the opportunities, such as flexibility, autonomy and residual income, presented by the digital sexual spaces marketplace. The overall positive appraisal of OnlyFans, as a preferred employer, is directly linked to how segmented the South African labour market is. That is, economic opportunities presented by platforms make it difficult for participants to associate their precarity with platform affordances. Thus, there is need to cultivate digital marketplace literacies in ways that can inform regulating the labour market as it shifts between informality and formality and transforms due to hybridization.

The Gig economy started flourishing in India post 2000 with the use of smartphones and easy access to internet facilities. The breakout of Covid-19 and the lockdown of the economy in 2020 increased the demand for online workers. The Gig economy has opened new employment opportunities for India’s vast pool of unskilled and uneducated workers with the emergence of companies like Ola, , Zomato etc. A significant percentage of the gig workers are women though their percentage is far less than the world average. Moreover, women are mainly concentrated in selected sectors like beauty services and domestic workers. The Gig economy has gained increased popularity over the years owing to factors like flexible timing, independence of the workers, etc. However, despite their strong presence, fact remains that the Gig economy is still mainly confined to the informal sector of urban India. Workers are forced to work under poor working conditions with limited social security. This chapter explores how the Gig economy has become an integral part of modern India, its impact on the employment situation of the country, and comes up with the conclusion that the government must ensure minimum wages and insurance of the Gig workers so that it can boost up the economic growth of the country.

The gig economy plays a significant role in Chinas economic landscape by enhancing labor market flexibility and efficiency. It provides a crucial avenue for income diversification, particularly for marginalized groups and those in the informal sector, thus contributing to poverty alleviation and inclusive growth. Furthermore, the gig economy fosters innovation and entrepreneurship, driving the development of digital platforms and related industries, which are integral to Chinas ongoing economic transformation. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the opportunities and challenges presented by China's gig economy. It examines the economic reforms and technological developments that have enabled its growth, alongside the precarious nature of gig work, particularly for internal migrants and women. This study adopts the research method of literature analysis. It can be concluded that the gig economy, while offering flexibility and income opportunities, exacerbates inequalities and precarity due to inadequate worker protections and platform accountability. To foster a more equitable and sustainable model in China, multi-level interventions focusing on labor rights, inclusive regulation, and worker empowerment are crucial.

This chapter provides a historical review of the development of China’s gig economy and the increasing presence of online platforms in recent years. It discusses the origin of the gig economy in China and the waves of development of the informal sector and explains the rise of the platforms and capital’s strengthened control of labour. China’s gig economy started with market reforms in the 1980s. The government promoted ‘individual employment’, or getihu, in the urban economy and small family plots and businesses in the countryside. In the immediate aftermath of the structural adjustments, based on a weakened working-class and continued state intervention, China entered a period of rapid capital accumulation and economic growth from the early 2000s. The sustained growth led to several changes in the gig economy and capital-labour relations in general. The informal economy started to shrink and more gig workers were absorbed by the formal sector.

The process of digitalization has increased rapidly around the world and this process has transformed societies and brought a new economic revolution. The use of technology has brought a new change in India as well. A paradigm shift in business models, service provisions, and working arrangements has taken place. Now flexible types of jobs are available to freelancers and part-time workers. The gig economy is a relatively new and emerging sector with immense potential for growth and employment generation. This study highlights the growth of the gig economy in India from 2011-12 to 2019-20.The number of gig workers increased from 25.2 lakhs in 2011-12 to 68 lakhs in 2019-20. The CAGR is 16.78 per cent which is statistically significant. The percentage share of gig workers is 37.6 per cent in the formal sector and 62.4 per cent in the informal sector. The percentage share of gig workers is high in retail trade than in any other industry. Gig workers are more visible as shop salespersons, demonstrates, and small market salespersons. The gig economy has started playing a significant role in the Indian economy and impacting various aspects of employment entrepreneurship and consumer behavior.

The growth of the gig economy is directly related to the expansion of digitalization and internet facilities due to the convenience of connecting firms and employees online. The growth of this economy has had an impact on the reduction of unemployment. The methodology used is a mix of qualitative and quantitative analysis. Data utilized are from government sources. Preliminary data indicated that 56% of new employment being generated in India is by gig economy companies across the blue-collar and white-collar workforce. The study looked into balance sheets and other financial data of Uber and Swiggy. The growth of this sector involved the understanding of cost-effectiveness for the employer as well as the employee working on a contractual or temporary basis. It was found that the important factors were whether the economy is developed or developing, additional income or primary income, and the education and skill set of the employee. Employment opportunities have increased and this could be the future for countries like India, where the demographic dividend could be effectively utilized. This sector's problem is ensuring that workers are not being exploited. The paper will analyze the increasing importance of the “Gig Economy.” How important are these economies in solving issues like employment for both developed and developing economies? Is this an alternative to the ‘Formal Employment’ type of model for economies? How far does employment in this sector help empower the workforce? Does it address the gender inequalities that exist in all economies? How important is this sector as an addition /alternative to the informal sector of developing economies? These and many such questions will be attempted in the course of research.

Despite considerable research interest in the information technology (IT)-enabled gig economy, studies have yet to be carried out to systematize the skills required and formulate an overall model of competencies needed for gig-based IT professionals/representatives to be successful. Using dynamic skill theory, this study sought to provide an in-depth comprehension of the skills required to realize a booming gig economy. The systematic literature review was limited to quality, peer-reviewed studies carried out between 2013 and 2023 in sub-Saharan Africa. This review revealed that although both soft skills and hard skills are required, the current situation in southern Africa demands more soft skills. Drawing on findings from a systematic literature review, the study unravels usable vital skills to achieve a sustainable and viable gig economy in southern Africa. The authors' integrated framework provides insights into the nature of the skills required to navigate the burgeoning IT-enabled gig economy, thereby playing a catalytic role in achieving the sustainable development goal of eliminating poverty.

The gig economy, characterized by temporary and flexible work arrangements, is rapidly expanding globally. However, its implications for human resource management (HRM) in developing regions like Jambi, Indonesia, remain largely unexplored. This study aims to provide a preliminary investigation into the gig economy's impact on HRM practices in Jambi. A mixed-methods approach was employed, involving a survey of 150 gig workers and 50 traditional employees in Jambi, along with in-depth interviews with 10 HRM professionals from various industries. The survey data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and comparative analysis, while the interview data was analyzed thematically. The study found that gig workers in Jambi face challenges related to job insecurity, lack of benefits, and social isolation. HRM professionals reported difficulties in recruiting, managing, and retaining gig workers due to the lack of formal employment contracts and the need for flexible work arrangements. The findings also suggest that the gig economy is creating new opportunities for HRM practices, such as the use of technology for talent acquisition and performance management. In conclusion, gig economy is transforming the nature of work in Jambi, posing challenges and opportunities for HRM. This study highlights the need for HRM professionals to adapt their practices to the changing landscape of work. Further research is needed to explore the long-term implications of the gig economy for HRM in Jambi and other developing regions.

The gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work, offers flexibility but often lacks the security and labor protections of traditional employees. The emergence of on-demand service applications like Uber, Swiggy, and Ola has made the gig economy more significant in the digital realm. These platforms provide rapid, straightforward, and adaptable services, making them useful for urban dwellers. However, the gig economy faces informality issues such as extended working hours, meager salaries, absence of formal employment contracts, inadequate social protection, restricted job security, lack of health insurance, nonexistence of paid leave, and insufficient access to utilities. Climate change is intensifying, leading to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, which disproportionately affect outdoor workers. The gig economy's reliance on digital platforms presents both opportunities and challenges for environmental sustainability. Digital platforms can facilitate efficient resource allocation, reduce commuting through remote work options, and optimize logistics, potentially leading to lower carbon emissions. However, the convenience-driven nature of on-demand services can increase vehicle emissions and urban congestion. This paper examines the intersection of the gig economy and climate change, highlighting the vulnerability of gig workers, particularly app-based workers, to climate-related risks. It examines the role of urban infrastructure, policy interventions, and technological solutions in mitigating these challenges. The study also considers the ethical responsibilities of platform companies in ensuring the safety and well-being of their workforce. It calls for integrating climate risks into occupational health guidelines and promoting sustainable practices within the gig economy.

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, conversations around the gig economy have explored its impact on how we view labour and the skilled workforce globally. In India, both the “gig economy” and gig workers have always existed and been pervasive, especially in the unorganized sectors. Many women in India, especially homemakers who want to work from home, have leveraged platforms like Meesho to enter the commercial realm. The research presented in this chapter shows how women have “negotiated” social permissions to try reselling, especially in rural and semi-urban areas, where digital or mobile access is restricted. It also focuses on what it means for them to use the internet for the Meesho app, or to try reselling or setting up their online business through the platform.

With the prospect of significant changes to the legal and regulatory framework around migration, British exit from the EU, coupled with the implementation of the 2016 Trade Union Act, is set to make the lives of British and immigrant workers even more precarious. It is a commonly held belief that the proliferation of the so-called 'gig economy' and otherwise precarious work is rendering labour organising historically redundant. Migrant workers, now threatened not just with unemployment, poor working conditions and low pay, but also rising anti-immigrant sentiment and potential deportation, face particularly severe obstacles to workplace organising. Drawing from interviews with five trade unionists, this article will seek to argue that, despite these obstacles, not only is it possible for workers in precarious situations to organise industrially, as we can see from the strikes and campaigns discussed here, but also that in a context of declining union activity and wholesale attacks on migrant and workers' rights, the trade union movement should be looking to these cases for answers. These cases do not, however, represent 'new forms of trade unionism'. Rather, they show us that we should seek to return to some of the oldest and most rudimentary forms of industrial action to combat conservatism in trade union bureaucracies, and to build a politicised, militant and more effective organised rank-and-file. The first of these interviews (II) is with Petros Elia, general secretary of the United Voices of the World union (UVW). UVW primarily organise and represent Latin American and West African migrant workers in service industries. They recently won a campaign for the retention of tips for restaurant workers in Harrods, London, and are at the time of writing (May 2017) organising a cleaners strike at the London School of Economics (LSE) over pay, hours and pensions. The second interview (12) is with Daniel Randall, industrial rep on the London Underground, in the National Union of RMT Workers, and centrally discusses the organisation of London Underground cleaners, chiefly comprising West African and Eastern European workers. The third of these interviews (13) is with Ewa Jasiewicz, who was an organiser for the London Unite Hotel Workers' branch. The branch has been organising campaigns around union recognition, pay and conditions, such as workload. The fourth interview (14) is with Agata Adamowicz, who works at the Ritzy Picturehouse cinema, and is currently on strike with colleagues across the Picturehouse chain for the London Living Wage, sick pay and other demands. The final interview (15) is with Callum Cant, a Deliveroo cyclist in Brighton and union representative with the Independent Workers Union of Great Britain (IWGB). He organised a strike in Brighton, following successful strike action by Deliveroo workers in London. Each of these campaigns has won key demands or made significant gains in recruitment and organisation, as well as garnering considerable attention from the press and general public. They also demonstrate that not only are precarious and migrant workers getting organised, but that they are at the forefront of some of the most exciting industrial disputes today. Living and organising precariously Between 2007 and 2015, British workers saw the largest fall in wages of any Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) country other than Greece, and increasingly, workers in industries who were traditionally more secure, such as education and transport, are seeing the implementation of casual and zero-hour contracts. It is estimated that 3.2 million people in the United Kingdom now work in insecure jobs (TUC 2016a: 3-5). This decline in pay, and erosion of job security and employment rights, has taken place in the context of historically low levels of industrial disputes (ONS 2017). Brexit has led to fears that a number of rights that stem from EU membership are under threat: while in some instances, laws that resulted from EU directives are well accepted, such as anti-discrimination laws, there are others that are likely to come under attack post-Brexit. …