Abstract
The forward testing effect refers to the finding that retrieval practice of previously studied information enhances learning and retention of subsequently studied other information. While most of the previous research on the forward testing effect examined group differences, the present study took an individual differences approach to investigate this effect. Experiment 1 examined whether the forward effect has test-retest reliability between two experimental sessions. Experiment 2 investigated whether the effect is related to participants’ working memory capacity. In both experiments (and each session of Experiment 1), participants studied three lists of items in anticipation of a final cumulative recall test. In the testing condition, participants were tested immediately on lists 1 and 2, whereas in the restudy condition, they restudied lists 1 and 2. In both conditions, participants were tested immediately on list 3. On the group level, the results of both experiments demonstrated a forward testing effect, with interim testing of lists 1 and 2 enhancing immediate recall of list 3. On the individual level, the results of Experiment 1 showed that the forward effect on list 3 recall has moderate test-retest reliability between two experimental sessions. In addition, the results of Experiment 2 showed that the forward effect on list 3 recall does not depend on participants’ working memory capacity. These findings suggest that the forward testing effect is reliable at the individual level and affects learners at a wide range of working memory capacities alike. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Highlights
Tests are commonly used to evaluate learning
The results of Experiment 1 replicate the findings from previous work on the forward testing effect (e.g., Bäuml & Kliegl, 2013; Szpunar et al, 2008; Weinstein et al, 2011; Yang et al, 2019), showing that interim testing of lists 1 and 2, in comparison to restudy of lists 1 and 2, enhances correct recall of list 3 items and reduced the number of prior-list intrusions in the immediate list 3 recall test
Going beyond the previous research, the results show that the forward effect on list 3 recall rates was reliably reduced in session 2 compared to session 1
Summary
Tests can be used to enhance learning and retention. This has been demonstrated in both basic research in the laboratory (for reviews, see Karpicke, 2017; Roediger & Butler, 2011; Rowland, 2014) and applied research in educational contexts (for reviews, see Adesope, Trevisan, & Sundararajan, 2017; Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013; Moreira, Pinto & Starling, 2019). Thereby, testing can have both direct and indirect effects on long-term learning and retention (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a). The backward testing effect is a robust phenomenon that generalizes across a wide range of materials and experimental settings (see Karpicke, 2017). Retrieval practice, more than restudy, may promote semantic elaboration (Carpenter, 2009) and/or may enhance contextual processing of the information (Karpicke, Lehman, & Aue, 2014), enhancing learning and memory accessibility of the practiced information
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