Abstract
To date, the provision of ecosystem services has largely been estimated based on spatial patterns of land cover alone, using benefit transfer analysis. Although it is increasingly being recognised that the distribution of the human population affects whether a potential service translates into a realised service, this misses key steps in the process and assumes that everyone accesses ecosystem services in the same way. Here we describe a conceptual approach to ecosystem services in terms of movement and flows. We highlight that ecosystem service flows can be broken down into ‘nature to people’ (the movement of nature towards beneficiaries) and ‘people to nature’ (the movement of beneficiaries towards nature). The former has been relatively well described. Here, we explore the latter by reviewing research on human migration, animal foraging and landscape connectivity. We assess if and how existing theories might be useful in describing how people seek out ecosystem services. We consider some of the ways in which flows of people to nature can be measured. Such measurements may reveal which movement theories best represent how people seek out and access ecosystem services. Overall, our review aims to improve the future modelling of ecosystem services by more explicitly considering how people access potential services and therefore realise them.
Highlights
Despite the fact that ecosystem services (ESs) are an inherently socio-ecological concept [6], the land cover approach considers only ecological variables and does not factor in the social variables. This approach may give an estimate of potential ESs [7] or the capacity of an ecosystem to supply a service [8], it does not account for demand or how people might access the service, which is largely unknown [9]
We focus on large-scale, replicable theories, presenting possible approaches by which maps or models of potential ES supply can be supplemented to capture realised ES
There are extensive theories from numerous disciplines that can be adapted in order to better understand the movement of people to nature (P2N)
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. A number of studies have suggested gendered differences in the perception and use of urban green space, for example, in terms of the activities carried out [40], reported benefits [41] and fears about personal safety [42] It is not the aim of this paper to describe differences among individuals of differing socio-economic groups in terms of ES access in detail, as this has been explored elsewhere (for example, [43] reviews ESs through a gendered lens). Instead, in this conceptual paper, we disaggregate the flow of ES into N2P and P2N and seek to understand the processes by which beneficiaries seek out ESs—the movement of people to nature (P2N). People may travel to spend time in the mountains, which would be classified as P2N
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