Abstract
The global burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is rising. A superior strategy to advance global kidney health is required to prevent and treat CKD early. Kidney development can be impacted during the first 1000 days of life by numerous factors, including malnutrition, maternal illness, exposure to chemicals, substance abuse, medication use, infection, and exogenous stress. In the current review, we summarize environmental risk factors reported thus far in clinical and experimental studies relating to the programming of kidney disease, and systematize the knowledge on common mechanisms underlying renal programming. The aim of this review is to discuss the primary and secondary prevention actions for enhancing kidney health from pregnancy to age 2. The final task is to address the potential interventions to target renal programming through updating animal studies. Together, we can enhance the future of global kidney health in the first 1000 days of life.
Highlights
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The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) doubles in the tion [15], which eventually differentiates into2 the collecting duct system and leads to the first 2 weeks of life from a value of 20 mL/min/1.73 m at birth in full-term neonates
Another observational study showed that diabetes during pregnancy influences fetal kidney growth, indicating a negative effect on nephrogenesis [56]
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Suboptimal environmental conditions in this unique period can cause adverse long-term health outcomes. This theory has evolved into the Developmental Origin of Health and Disease (DOHaD) theory [2]. We know that programming processes before disease becomes apparent are modifiable by shifting the therapeutic approach from adulthood to early life, namely, reprogramming [11,12]. This vision proposes that greater attention is needed on global kidney health policy, focus on the prevention of kidney disease in the earliest stage, not just the treatment of established.
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