Abstract
The reduction in fecundity associated with the evolution of viviparity may have far-reaching implications for the ecology, demography, and evolution of populations. The evolution of a polygamous behaviour (e.g. polyandry) may counteract some of the effects underlying a lower fecundity, such as the reduction in genetic diversity. Comparing patterns of multiple paternity between reproductive modes allows us to understand how viviparity accounts for the trade-off between offspring quality and quantity. We analysed genetic patterns of paternity and offspring genetic diversity across 42 families from two modes of viviparity in a reproductive polymorphic species, Salamandra salamandra. This species shows an ancestral (larviparity: large clutches of free aquatic larvae), and a derived reproductive mode (pueriparity: smaller clutches of larger terrestrial juveniles). Our results confirm the existence of multiple paternity in pueriparous salamanders. Furthermore, we show the evolution of pueriparity maintains, and even increases, the occurrence of multiple paternity and the number of sires compared to larviparity, though we did not find a clear effect on genetic diversity. High incidence of multiple paternity in pueriparous populations might arise as a mechanism to avoid fertilization failures and to ensure reproductive success, and thus has important implications in highly isolated populations with small broods.
Highlights
The reduction in fecundity associated with the evolution of viviparity may have far-reaching implications for the ecology, demography, and evolution of populations
The intra-specific polymorphism in reproductive modes exhibited by the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra Linnaeus, 1758) makes it a good system to investigate the potential changes in MP levels and offspring genetic diversity related to the evolution of a novel reproductive strategy
This study confirmed the occurrence of MP in pueriparous salamanders, a reproductive strategy restricted to only two urodele genera: Salamandra and Lyciasalamandra[47,48,49]
Summary
The reduction in fecundity associated with the evolution of viviparity may have far-reaching implications for the ecology, demography, and evolution of populations. We analysed genetic patterns of paternity and offspring genetic diversity across 42 families from two modes of viviparity in a reproductive polymorphic species, Salamandra salamandra This species shows an ancestral (larviparity: large clutches of free aquatic larvae), and a derived reproductive mode (pueriparity: smaller clutches of larger terrestrial juveniles). Viviparity is frequently associated with a reduction in clutch size and fecundity[4,8, 9] This can affect population effective size (Ne) which may decrease species genetic diversity[10,11], compromising population viability and adaptive potential to respond to changing environmental p ressures[12,13]. These differences in the offspring are due to several heterochronic processes related to the shift to pueriparity, such as the incomplete fertilization of ovulated eggs, accelerated and asynchronous rates of embryonic development, and active feeding on unfertilized eggs (oophagy) and less developed siblings (adelphophagy)[25]
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