The Evolution of Fruit Color in Fleshy-Fruited Plants

Abstract

Red and black are the most common colors of bird-dispersed fruits in all regions of the world for which information is available; other colors occur, but at lower frequencies. We present 13 nonexclusive hypotheses that may contribute to the observed frequency distribution of fruit colors and assess them, in a preliminary way, using existing information. Five hypotheses relate fruit colors directly to avian foraging: (1) birds prefer red and black (weak support at best); (2) red and black displays are more readily discovered by foraging birds (mixed evidence); (3) fruit colors indicate fruit maturity (mixed evidence); (4) fruit colors facilitate quick recognition of food (little evidence); (5) nutritionally poor fruits mimic nutrient-rich fruits (no data). Three hypotheses relate fruit colors to defense against natural enemies: (6) red fruits are inconspicuous to fruit-foraging arthropods (limited applicability); (7) fruit colors exclude poor dispersal agents (few data); (8) fruit pigments defend fruits ag...