The Emerging Legal History of Women in the United States: Property, Divorce, and the Constitution

Reviewed by: Patriots, Prostitutes, and Spies: Women and the Mexican-American War by John M. Belohlavek Mark Bernhardt (bio) Patriots, Prostitutes, and Spies: Women and the Mexican-American War. By John M. Belohlavek. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2017. Pp. 320. $45.00 cloth; $45.00 ebook) John M. Belohlavek sets out to examine how American and Mexican women served their families and countries during the Mexican-American War and responded to the military conflict. He rightly asserts that there is a growing body of scholarship on women's lives during the American Revolutionary and Civil War eras, but women's experiences during the Mexican-American War remain understudied and his objective is to bring "the lives of those who lived in anonymity together with those of the few celebrities" in one volume (p. 18). Alongside the stories of well-known women from the period, such as Susan Magoffin and Jane Storm Cazneau, he also includes those of midwestern mothers fearing for their sons' safety on the frontlines, New Mexico wives trying to keep family businesses operating, and [End Page 534] American and Mexican women who travelled with the armies. The book is divided into eight themed chapters, which provide a diverse range of perspectives. The first discusses American women's opinions of the war. Chapter two describes how Mexican women interacted with Americans and aided the Mexican army. In chapter three, Belohlavek details the experiences of American women who traveled through northern Mexico. Chapter four tells about American women living and working in Mexico, providing services to the American army or having taken jobs in Mexican factories before the war. What female newspaper reporters and editors wrote about the war is the subject of chapter five. Chapter six examines the views American soldiers had of the Mexican women they encountered. Belohlavek analyzes American war-themed literature written by women or about women in chapter seven. He follows this with a similar analysis of poetry and songs produced both in the United States and Mexico in the final chapter. Belohlavek located an impressive array of sources through his research, including diaries, letters, newspaper articles, memoirs, songs, poems, serials, and novels to document how the war impacted women's lives on both sides of the border and the opinions some women expressed about it. However, though he makes the effort to include Mexican women's voices, Mexican women are more often viewed through the eyes of American men, and overall the book provides much more information about American women's views and experiences. There are some minor problems. The author delves into a number of topics that are irrelevant to the book's subject matter. For example, in the introduction he states that "by briefly exploring the political, economic, and social nature of the two countries, we can obtain a clearer picture of how they [Mexico and the United States] came to clash and determine whether a realistic alternative presented itself" (p. 3). Considering that Belohlavek provides only a short summary of the scholarship on the causes of the war and its inevitability with no new insights of his own or explanation of the connection to his [End Page 535] research, it seems unnecessary to address this issue at all. Similarly, while his brief discussion of the quality of Mexican army bands is interesting, he does not demonstrate how this information meaningfully contributes to his study. Such asides at times disrupt the flow of the narrative. There is also a notable contradiction to one of the chapter's arguments. Belohlavek states that most women endorsed the war with Mexico (p. 21). However, he also accepts Peggy Cashion's well-researched findings that indicate most women opposed the war while still supporting the well-being and safety of American soldiers (p. 42). Overall, the book provides much needed research on an understudied topic. There is room for a lot more work in this field, especially concerning the experiences of Mexican women, but Belohlavek's contribution here helps serve as a solid foundation for future studies. Mark Bernhardt MARK BERNHARDT teaches history at Jackson State University. He is the author of several articles about the press coverage of the Mexican-American War. Copyright...

Transcript Auto scroll search expand close Search Transcript Search Up Search Down Close Search Tools Tools icon close Download PDFopens in new window Cite Cite icon close Format APA APA Chicago Harvard MLA AMA Joseph, A. (Academic). (2023). Researching acculturation processes & psychological functioning of asian indian women in the united states using a mixed methods approach [Video]. Sage Research Methods. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529630060 Joseph, Anitha. "Researching Acculturation Processes & Psychological Functioning of Asian Indian Women in the United States Using a Mixed Methods Approach." In Sage Video. : SAGE Publications, Ltd., 2023. Video, 00:15:16. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529630060. Joseph, A., 2023. Researching Acculturation Processes & Psychological Functioning of Asian Indian Women in the United States Using a Mixed Methods Approach, Sage Video. [Streaming Video] London: Sage Publications Ltd. Available at: <https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529630060 & gt; [Accessed 17 Mar 2023]. Joseph, Anitha. Researching Acculturation Processes & Psychological Functioning of Asian Indian Women in the United States Using a Mixed Methods Approach. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 12 Dec 2022. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529630060. 17 Mar 2023. Researching Acculturation Processes & Psychological Functioning of Asian Indian Women in the United States Using a Mixed Methods Approach [Streaming video]. 2023. doi:10.4135/9781529630060. Accessed 03/17/2023 copy to clipboard or Export to your reference manager Endnote Endnote Reference Manager ProCite RefWorks BibTeX Zotero Medlars Mendeley Word Export Cancel Share Share icon close Share via Email Please log in from an authenticated institution or log into your member profile to access the email feature. Sign in/register Embed Embed icon close Embed this Content Add this content to your learning management system or webpage by copying the code below into the HTML editor on the page. Look for the words HTML or </>. Learn More about Embedding Video icon link (opens in new window) Clip - https://methods.sagepub.com/video/researching-acculturation-and-psychological-functioning-of-asian-indian-women Embed code: Copy to clipboard Select a length: Entire video Entire video Select a size: 420x236 640x360 853x480 Sample View: (opens in new window) Cancel Get link Get link icon close Select a length: Entire video Entire video Link to this page directly with a permalink: https://methods.sagepub.com/video/researching-acculturation-and-psychological-functioning-of-asian-indian-women Copy to clipboard Cancel

Indian Women of Childbearing Age Do Not Metabolically Conserve Arginine as Do American and Jamaican Women ,

Reviewed by: The Young Oxford History of Women in the United States Myra L. Pennell (bio) The Young Oxford History of Women in the United States, edited by Nancy F. Cott, is designed to examine the life of women in the past and to explore how their experience has changed over time. The series is valuable for study and teaching at the secondary and college level; this review focuses on the usefulness of the books for classroom application. The questions guiding this series addressed the economic, social, and political aspects of American history. For example, the authors investigated women’s work and leisure, family patterns, gender roles, forms of political organization used by women, and techniques used by the disenfranchised to influence politics. A second goal of the series was to identify [End Page 210] the outstanding accomplishments of individuals and groups in improving the lot of women. The stated aims of the series were accomplished laudably. But the series is more than solely a history of women. The set is a good example of the broader category of social and cultural history, which seeks to make the invisible visible by illuminating the lived experiences of the common people. This series has high potential for practical application in the classroom. National history is commonly taught at the high school and university levels. Public schools of most of the states have a very specific and crowded curriculum for U.S. history at the secondary level. Teachers and schools are evaluated based on student mastery of the required content as measured by their performance on end-of-course tests. Understandably, teachers are increasingly cautious about using materials that are not directly related to the curriculum. Although each state has its own curriculum, all of them are similar to the National Standards for United States History (National Center for History in the Schools, 1994). Therefore, in spite of the controversy excited by those standards, they are a good gauge for the mandated curriculum typical in most states. The books in this series are organized by chronological periods, as are most other surveys of U.S. history. The major content (people, events, places) is covered so that the story of women is historicized rather than being isolated or taken out-of-context; for example, coverage of the American Revolution, Civil War and Reconstruction, Industrial Revolution, and social and political ferment of the post-World War II era are all addressed. Also included are reform movements other than women’s rights, such as abolition, and the movement to gain civil rights for other disadvantaged or disenfranchised groups, such as Native Americans. Because of this comprehensive coverage, the books in this series can be used in conjunction with, or even at times in place of, the regular textbook. Their use is not as limited as sources that are merely “add-ons.” The presentation of some aspects of U.S. history is often problematic for teachers. One difficulty is that the curriculum (and common sense) requires that all facets of a culture be studied, not just the political arena. Interest and work in the fields of social and cultural history have increased in recent decades, and women’s history is a part of this research trend. But many resources available to teachers are still traditional political history that is short on the economic and social aspects of culture and excludes coverage of those who did not hold the seats of power. One example of the broader coverage of this series is the description of the everyday activities of women at the turn of this century. This narrative of how the new domestic technology changed food preservation and preparation, hygiene, clothing, or lighting, is really the story of life at home as experienced by the whole family. The discussion of how difficult it was to regulate fire for heating and cooking helps students understand how truly marvelous and [End Page 211] “revolutionary” were the inventions of the Industrial Revolution (New Paths to Power, 39–59). The series is an excellent resource for U.S. history teachers because it is not traditional political history, and it helps students develop a vivid mental picture of what it was really like...

Reviewed by: Young Oxford History of Women in the United States April Spencer (bio) Young Oxford History of Women in the United States edited by Nancy F. Cott. New York: Oxford University Press, $242.00 / 11 vol. set, $22.00 / vol., paper. Includes The Tried and the True: Native American Women Confronting Colonization by John Demos, 1998, 111 pp.; The Colonial Mosaic: American Women 1600–1760 by Jane Kamensky, 1998, 157 pp.; The Limits of Independence: American Women 1760–1800 by Marylynn Salmon, 1998, 141 pp.; Breaking New Ground: American Women 1800–1848 by Michael Goldberg, 1998, 141 pp; An Unfinished Battle: American Women 1848–1865 by Harriet Sigerman, 1998, 143 pp.; Laborers for Liberty: American Women 1865–1890 by Harriet Sigerman, 1998, 143 pp.; New Paths to Power: American Women 1890–1920 by Karen Manners Smith, 1998, 142 pp.; From Ballots to Breadlines: American Women 1920–1940 by Sarah Jane Deutsch, 1998, 141 pp.; Pushing the Limits: American Women 1940–1961 by Elaine Tyler May, 1998, 141 pp.; The Road to Equality: American Women Since 1962 by William H. Chafe, 1998, 142 pp.; Biographical Supplement and Index by Harriet Sigerman, 1998, 221 pp. The Young Oxford History of Women is long overdue and should be in every middle and high school library. As a high school teacher of history, [End Page 207] and more specifically women’s history, I find this set refreshing and well-rounded. I frequently have witnessed gender-biased writing in textbooks and see these volumes as filling the many gaps in our current American History texts. The nine authors represented in these volumes cover the last four centuries with first-person accounts that bring women to life for the readers. The authors focus on the private as well as the public lives of women and present various groups of women from different ethnic, religious, and class perspectives. As Nancy Cott, the editor of this collection, states, “knowledge of the past is essential to creating justice for the future” (Vol. 1, 8). The books do not whitewash our history and will raise as many questions as they answer. Each of the first ten books breaks up the time periods, some as short as twenty years and others covering more than one hundred years. They also include a chronological list of events and a list of further readings relevant to that time period. The eleventh book, a biographical supplement, offers a list of women’s museums, historic sites, and web sites. This set ideally works best together, but each book can stand alone. As a history teacher, I must be capable of explaining to my students why we need to know our history. These books struggle with the same questions that students do. Why were things the way they were? How did change affect groups of people? What can we take from their struggle and use now? These books can be used by a wide range of history students—from a women’s history class to a general U.S. history class—but they also appeal to a broader audience such as English literature and psychology. They are written so that an advanced-level middle school student can benefit as well. None of the volumes contains footnotes, which makes it much easier to read. Each of the eleven volumes also contains further readings for more extensive research so that the information is appropriate to the level of the student. Another exciting feature of the series is the final volume. This biographical supplement and index directly references the ten preceding volumes. There are approximately two hundred and fifty women included, representing a variety of ethnic origins, careers, and time periods. This facilitates the set’s use in the classroom for reports as well as general reference. The biographical sketches are concise and readable. Each sketch comes with a list of further readings by and about the women. This supplement can serve as a valuable stand-alone book in classrooms. After the biographies, historic sites and museums related to women’s history—several of which relate to the biographies included—are categorized by state. Lastly, web sites are listed. Many of these sites contain similar biographical sketches for women...

Reviewed by: Women's Antiwar Diplomacy during the Vietnam War Era by Jessica M. Frazier Frances P. Martin (bio) Women's Antiwar Diplomacy during the Vietnam War Era. By Jessica M. Frazier. (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2017. Pp. 236. $80.00 cloth; $29.95 paper; $19.99 ebook) As the title suggests, Jessica Frazier's book Women's Antiwar Diplomacy [End Page 139] during the Vietnam War Era examines the role of women in antiwar diplomacy and activism during the Vietnam War. The main crux of Frazier's argument asserts the relationship between the American and Vietnamese women was not U.S. cultural imperialism, but rather a genuine collaborative relationship where each side actively worked to forward their own goals and agenda. Spanning from 1965 to 1978 Frazier documents the collaborative anti-war efforts of Vietnamese and American women and how the nature of the relationships forged by these groups changed over the course of the war as the nature of the Vietnam War also changed. However, while the war provides the context for her primary argument, the women's anti-war activism frames a broader discussion of the role identity and imperialism played in activism during the 1960s and 1970s. Frazier breaks the war into six sections, allowing her to focus on particular issues during each phase. First, Frazier looks at mothers as experts in 1965 to 1967 by focusing on the burgeoning activism of women's antiwar groups in the United States and Vietnam. Motherhood appears as a continuous theme throughout Frazier's argument. She illustrates how both groups used motherhood and maternal duty as a way to justify fighting against the war or fighting in it. After explaining how alliances formed and connections strengthened through international activism and conferences from 1968 to 1970, Frazier uses chapter three to discuss 1970 and the development of "Third World" feminist networks. The chapter focuses on African American, Chicana, and Asian American women activists and how they drew inspiration from the Vietnamese women in their different fight against sexism, racism, and imperialism. In chapter four she examines the years 1969–1972 and focuses on the struggle among feminist movements worldwide to include war as a feminist issue. Using the International Women's Conference as the backdrop for the discussion of war as a feminist issue Frazier shows that the feminist movement and the antiwar movement were hardly a homogenous group with identical goals and agendas. The last two chapters span from 1970–1978 and focus on the more practical ways that women's [End Page 140] antiwar activism impacted the discussion of the Vietnam War concerning women's rights and the conditions of Prisoners of War, and expose the shifting context of alliances between the activists after the war. Overall, Frazier has a well-developed argument aided by a rich set of case studies. By focusing on the individual's experience, she provides a densely woven analysis that propels her argument forward. Frazier also has extensive bibliography-based sources. Her use of oral histories provided the Vietnamese perspective vital to her central thesis and the incorporation of these interviews strengthened the overall narrative. By giving us a glimpse of the Vietnamese women's view, Frazier solidifies her claim of collaborative and mutually beneficial relations between the American and Vietnamese women. Despite the excellent use of oral histories, Frazier's analysis was from a primarily American or western perspective, which at times sidelined the voices of the Vietnamese women involved in the narrative. However, this does not lessen Frazier's contribution to the historiography. This book challenges previous conventions about the level of women's involvement in the anti-war movement and the type of relationships forged on an international level between Vietnams and American women. Rather than creating yet another imperialistic encounter between the United States and Vietnam, Frazier shows that these women came together to fight the imperialism that American intervention in Vietnam represented. Finally, this book shows the underlying complexities and intersections of identity and activism present in the antiwar movement around the world. [End Page 141] Frances P. Martin FRANCES P. MARTIN is a PhD student at the University of Connecticut. She currently researches...

Background: The average age of the homeless population is and will continue to rise. Although women comprise a significant and growing percentage of this vulnerable population, their age- and sex-specific health characteristics are poorly understood. Materials and Methods: This integrative review appraises published research addressing the physical and behavioral health characteristics of aging homeless women (≥50 years) in the United States (2000-2019). The authors searched six electronic databases to identify eligible studies. Studies were screened for methodological quality by using the Johns Hopkins Nursing Evidence-Based Practice model. The review is reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Results: Ten primary studies met the review eligibility criteria. All were level III (non-experimental); nine appraised as "good" quality (level B), and one as "lower" quality (level C). Aging homeless women demonstrate elevated rates of physical health conditions, related to suboptimal nutrition, lower than expected preventive health screening uptake, and geriatric concerns. Disproportionate rates of mental health conditions are compounded by substance use and interpersonal trauma. Familial and social dynamics and socioeconomic disadvantage contribute to social health concerns. Spiritual health is a critically important yet underexplored protective factor. Conclusions: Studies are limited, though collective findings suggest that aging homeless women endure a disproportionate physical, behavioral, and social health burden compared with aging non-homeless women and aging homeless men. Implications for research on early aging, preventative health strategies, and homelessness among women, and clinical practice in the context of geriatric and women's health are described.

Women in the United States are making historic progress in business leadership, with research linking women's leadership representation to positive outcomes. However, men still dominate US leadership, raising several key questions. Is the United States closing the leadership gender gap? What organizational barriers perpetuate the gap? What facilitates women's leadership? We synthesized and extended US literature to develop a multilevel organizational model of Barriers And Facilitators of Female Leader Empowerment, called the “BAFFLE” Female Leadership Model to highlight the baffling complexities and limited success in solving the US leadership gender gap. The review found that literature narrowly focuses on barriers and offers limited insights about how to facilitate female leader empowerment while simultaneously addressing systemic, entrenched organizational barriers. We also used the World Economic Forum (WEF) Global Gender Gap Index to provide global perspective on the US leadership gender gap. Finally, we summarize findings and implications for practice and scholarship.

Longitudinal Analysis of Syndemic Psychosocial Problems Predicting HIV Risk Behavior Among a Multicity Prospective Cohort of Sexually Active Young Transgender Women in the United States

Women in the United States have drunk, made, bought, sold, and organized both against and for the consumption of alcohol throughout the nation’s history. During the second half of the 20th century, however, women became increasingly visible as social drinkers and alcoholics. Specifically, the 1970s and 1980s marked women’s relationship to alcohol in interesting ways that both echoed moments from the past and ushered in new realities. Throughout these decades, women emerged as: (1) alcoholics who sought recovery in Alcoholics Anonymous or a lesser-known all-women’s sobriety program; (2) anti-alcohol activists who drew authority from their status as mothers; (3) potential criminals who harmed their progeny via fetal alcohol syndrome; and (4) recovery memoirists who claimed their addictions in unprecedented ways.

Black transgender women experience disproportionately high rates of violent victimization rooted in intersecting systems of oppression, including cisgenderism and anti-Black racism. Although victimization is linked to psychological distress, the mental health impacts of intersectional violence, which targets overlapping marginalized identities, remain understudied. To examine the associations between anticipated and experienced intersectional victimization and psychological distress among Black transgender women. Online survey data from 151 Black transgender women (age ≥ 18) in the United States (US) between October 2021 and February 2024 were analyzed using t-tests and multivariate linear regressions. In models controlling for age, employment, and US region, experienced sexual, physical, and threats of intersectional violence, as well as anticipated intersectional violence, were associated with increased post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity, in separate models. Conversely, only experienced sexual intersectional violence and anticipated intersectional violence were associated with greater depressive symptom severity. When all violence variables were included simultaneously, experienced intersectional sexual violence and anticipated violence remained significantly associated with PTSD and depressive symptoms in separate models. Service providers who work with Black transgender women should routinely assess for anticipated and experienced intersectional victimization to guide person-centered interventions. Further research is needed to distinguish the effects of intersectional victimization from opportunistic victimization and to inform the adaptation of targeted mental health interventions.

Book Review| October 01 1984 Out to Work: A History of Wage Earning Women in the United States by Alice Kessler-Harris Out to Work: A History of Wage Earning Women in the United States. By Kessler-Harris, Alice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Pp. xiv, 400. $19.95. Susan Levine Susan Levine Carrboro, N.C. Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google South Atlantic Quarterly (1984) 83 (4): 475–476. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-83-4-475xiv400 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Permissions Search Site Citation Susan Levine; Out to Work: A History of Wage Earning Women in the United States by Alice Kessler-Harris. South Atlantic Quarterly 1 October 1984; 83 (4): 475–476. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-83-4-475xiv400 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search Books & JournalsAll JournalsSouth Atlantic Quarterly Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright © 1984 by Duke University Press1984 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Book Review| July 01 2003 Dutch Immigrant Women in the United States, 1880-1920 Dutch Immigrant Women in the United States, 1880-1920, Suzanne M. Sinke. Robert P. Swierenga Robert P. Swierenga Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Journal of American Ethnic History (2003) 22 (4): 92–94. https://doi.org/10.2307/27501359 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Permissions Search Site Citation Robert P. Swierenga; Dutch Immigrant Women in the United States, 1880-1920. Journal of American Ethnic History 1 January 2003; 22 (4): 92–94. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/27501359 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectiveUniversity of Illinois PressJournal of American Ethnic History Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright 2002 Immigration and Ethnic History Society2002 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Conceptualizing menopause and midlife: Chinese American and Chinese women in the US

At the Crossroads of Equality versus ProtectionAmerican Occupationnaire Women and Socialist Feminism in US Occupied Japan, 1945–1952 Michiko Takeuchi (bio) On October 11, 1945, a document issued by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) declared the “liberation of Japanese women” to be one aspect of the democratization policies the American occupation would institute in Japan. The policy document proclaimed “the emancipation of the women through their enfranchisement—that, being members of the body politic, they may bring to Japan a new concept of government directly subservient to the well being of the home.”1 This statement about the “well being of the home” suggests SCAP actually undertook to implement American Cold War family ideology under the guise of women’s liberation. This ideology embodied SCAP’s ideal as represented by the middle-class (white) heterosexual nuclear family with rigid gender roles of a male breadwinner and a female homemaker.2 Far from seeing these official statements and efforts as liberating Japanese women, scholars have pointed out the ways American Cold War domesticity complemented Japan’s own modern domesticity ideology of the “good wife and wise mother.”3 Scholars also reject any notion of the male-dominated US military as a force behind women’s liberation in occupied Japan. Such initiatives came from women, particularly highly educated upper-and middle-class American and Japanese women, who together created the occupation’s policies for Japanese women (except suffrage) by forming a de facto women’s policy alliance.4 Members of the alliance were not static or harmonious, but they worked together to formulate “women’s liberation” policies according to their definition, which differed from that of SCAP. However, even when scholars have viewed this collaborative effort as important, they have not considered the complex dynamic that underlay the effort. Internal and external initiatives were at play in the shaping of gender ideology in which tensions and negotiations among American and Japanese women came to the fore. Exploring this complex dynamic reveals that the policy alliance did not just challenge SCAP’s Cold War domesticity ideology but also engaged in the [End Page 114] longstanding “women’s war”; that is, the debates about “equality versus protection.”5 The alliance’s debates about “equality versus protection” show that the alliance’s idea of “women’s liberation” was not invented in the so-called “workshop of democracy” in occupied Japan. Rather, it was built upon American and Japanese women’s decades of activism and their ideological coalition across the Pacific, which predated the occupation. American women occupation members, or “occupationnaires,” played crucial roles in rebuilding this ideological coalition in the postwar period as they pursued women’s liberation in occupied Japan (1945–52). At the heart of these initiatives was an alliance of women for whom the fundamental idea of “women’s liberation” was also highly contested, because it was related to American women’s long-term debates about “equality versus protection,” especially in the area of women’s labor. In fact, in October 1946 Lieutenant Ethel Weed (1906–75), a women’s information officer who played a leading role in the policy alliance, wrote to the historian Mary Beard (1876–1958) in the United States that “the question of equality vs. special privilege and protection has of course come up here [U.S.-occupied Japan] again and again.”6 Arising in the 1920s, the question of equality versus protection was the crux of what became known as the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) debate in the United States or what the historian Nancy Cott has called “the dilemma of twentieth-century feminism”—which goes beyond discussion of the proposed constitutional amendment.7 The ERA, stressing the sameness and equality of the sexes, was first introduced in Congress in 1923 by members of the National Women’s Party (NWP), who were middle-class feminists. However, the ERA was fiercely opposed by women labor activists and leftists (later called Old Lefts), such as Mary Anderson (1872–1964), a member of the Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL) and the first director of the Women’s Bureau, on the grounds that the ERA would nullify special legislative protection for women.8 Weed’s letter...