THE EFFECTS OF OTTO SALOMON'S SYSTEM ON THE DISSEMINATION OF PEDAGOGICAL MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA IN 1884-1917

Abstract

General preconditions of ti,e introduction ofmanual training in Russia's general educational school The latter half of the 19th century has a special place in the history of mankind. Rapid development of science and technology, construction of cities, railroads, communication lines substantially changed human life. Patriarchal natural eco~otny was left behind. . Development of industrial production has resulted in strengthening competition between the states, activation of struggle for commodity markets and sphere of influence. The competing states jealously kept up with each ,other, all innovations, including the sphere of education. The general educational school at that time underwent sharp criticism for contents and methods of training being behind the requirements of society, industry, and vocational education. School was criticized for having no ties with practice, reality, for verbal teaching. A movement for school reforming emerged. A new pedagogics was created, which was called reformatory pedagogics. Teachers-reformers tried to change the character of teaching at school, provide its psychological and pedagogical bases, and approach the contents, methods and orientation of school education to the requirements of scientific and technological progress and practice. One of the leading tendencies in reformatory pedagogics was aspiration to overcome unilateral character of training, to add various kinds of kinesthetic activity to intellectual activity. Therefore, the most representative in reformatory pedagogics was the movement for school'l. The participants of the movement believed that intellectual activity prevailing in the process of teaching should be counterbalanced by physical activity, first of all by various kinds of physical labor. Within the movement for the labor school, a number of independent trends were formed. Manualism was the leading one. The term manualism was derived from French travail manuel, which means training. With the purpose of improving teaching the European teachers-manualists suggested the introduction of manual training as an independent subject in the general educational school. They believed that manual labor should be a pedagogical device and, first of all, develop and educate students. Besides, other variants were offered too. So, supporters of vocational training insisted on introducing elementary vocat,ional training in the general educational school already at the elementary level. For example, in Russia, beginning with 60-s-70-s of the 19th century vocational classes were opened at elementary national schools. Owing to growing objective need of the Russian industry for skilful and dexterous qualified workers and low efficiency of vocational classes the suggestion to introduce manual training as an independent subject in national schools of Russia was discussed. The previous analysis of manual training at schools of the European states revealed that there were their own systems of manual training in France, Germany, and Sweden by then. The most prominent representatives of the movement for the introduction of manual training as an independent subject at the general educational school were Uno Cygneus (1810-1887) in Finland, Clauson-Caas (1826-1906) in Denmark, W. Gotze (1843-1898) and A.~Pabst (1854-1918) in Germany, G. A. Salissis (18181890) in France, O. Salomon (1849-1907) in' Sweden.