Abstract
On a first trial, elementary school children explored a multiple-choice maze. In one condition, performers in the presence of observers called out numbers associated with correct responses. In a second condition, observers called out the numbers. In a third condition, no verbalization occurred. On a subsequent retention test, observers were superior to performers, older children retained more than younger Ss, and Ss who did not verbalize but heard another child call out the numbers did better than Ss in other conditions.
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