Abstract
Developmental plasticity describes the influence of environmental factors on phenotypic variation. An important mediator of developmental plasticity in many animals is parental care. Here, we examine the consequences of maternal care on offspring after the initial mass provisioning of brood in the small carpenter bee, Ceratina calcarata. Removal of the mother during larval development leads to increased aggression and avoidance in adulthood. This corresponds with changes in expression of over one thousand genes, alternative splicing of hundreds of genes, and significant changes to DNA methylation. We identify genes related to metabolic and neuronal functions that may influence developmental plasticity and aggression. We observe no genome-wide association between differential DNA methylation and differential gene expression or splicing, though indirect relationships may exist between these factors. Our results provide insight into the gene regulatory context of DNA methylation in insects and the molecular avenues through which variation in maternal care influences developmental plasticity.
Highlights
Developmental plasticity describes the influence of environmental factors on phenotypic variation
The gene regulatory consequences of DNA methylation are more poorly understood in insects than in mammals, and it is presently unknown whether DNA methylation mediates potential long-term effects of variation in parental care in C. calcarata or other subsocial insects
Maternal care leaves a distinct mark on C. calcarata offspring, lasting into adulthood
Summary
Developmental plasticity describes the influence of environmental factors on phenotypic variation. The gene regulatory consequences of DNA methylation are more poorly understood in insects than in mammals, and it is presently unknown whether DNA methylation mediates potential long-term effects of variation in parental care in C. calcarata or other subsocial insects. It is known that DNA methylation affects transcription factor binding[23], which in gene bodies affects RNA Polymerase II processivity and the recognition of variably utilized splice sites[22] While this phenomenon has not been well studied in invertebrates beyond genome-wide correlations, a few studies have supported a link between DNA methylation and alternative splicing in insects[24,25,26,27]. Either or both of these proposed mechanisms could feasibly link DNA methylation to the regulation of developmental plasticity
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