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Abstract
IntroductionIndividuals with dyslexia exhibit associated learning deficits and impaired executive functions. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a learning-based task that relies heavily on executive functioning, in particular, attention shift and working memory. Performance during early and late phases of a series within the task represents learning and implementation of a newly learned rule. Here, we aimed to examine two event-related potentials associated with learning, feedback-related negativity (FRN)-P300 complex, in individuals with dyslexia performing the WCST.MethodsAdolescents with dyslexia and age-matched typical readers performed the Madrid card sorting test (MCST), a computerized version of the WCST. Task performance, reading measures, and cognitive measures were collected. FRN and the P300 complex were acquired using the event-related potentials methodology and were compared in early vs late errors within a series.ResultsWhile performing the MCST, both groups showed a significant reduction in average reaction times and a trend toward decreased error rates. Typical readers performed consistently better than individuals with dyslexia. FRN amplitudes in early phases were significantly smaller in dyslexic readers, but were essentially equivalent to typical readers in the late phase. P300 amplitudes were initially smaller among readers with dyslexia and tended to decrease further in late phases. Differences in FRN amplitudes for early vs late phases were positively correlated with those of P300 amplitudes in the entire sample.ConclusionIndividuals with dyslexia demonstrate a behavioral and electrophysiological change within single series of the MCST. However, learning patterns seem to differ between individuals with dyslexia and typical readers. We attribute these differences to the lower baseline performance of individuals with dyslexia. We suggest that these changes represent a fast compensatory mechanism, demonstrating the importance of learning strategies on reading among individuals with dyslexia.
Highlights
Individuals with dyslexia exhibit associated learning deficits and impaired executive functions
While performing the Madrid Card Sorting Test (MCST), both groups showed a significant reduction in average reaction times and a trend toward decreased error rates
feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitudes in early phases were significantly smaller in dyslexic readers, but were essentially equivalent to typical readers in the late phase
Summary
Individuals with dyslexia exhibit associated learning deficits and impaired executive functions. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities It is the most common specific learning impairment with an estimated prevalence of 5–6% among school-aged children in the United States. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a well-validated neuropsychological task that assesses both learning and executive functioning. It was developed by Grant and Berg in 1948 [8] and was originally introduced as a measure of frontal lobe function by Milner [9]. Thereby, the main executive functions tested by the WCST are set-shifting (the ability to switch rules following a negative feedback) and working memory (the capacity to memorize previously tested rules and maintain a given rule)
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