Abstract
In this paper, we aim to assess the extent to which individual-level completed fertility varies across contexts characterized by policies supporting different gender division of labor models. We examine key labor market and care policies that shape gender relations in households and in the public domain. We also consider the role of gender norms, which can act as both a moderator and a confounding factor for policy effects. We hypothesize that, by facilitating role compatibility and reducing the gendered costs of childrearing, policies that support gender equality lead to an increase in fertility levels and to a reduction in fertility differentials by the level of education. Using individual-level data from the European Union Survey on Income and Living Conditions for 16 countries, combined with country-level data, we analyze completed fertility through multilevel Poisson’s models. We find that the national level of childcare coverage is positively associated with fertility. Family allowances, prevalence of women’s part-time employment and length of paid leaves were also found to be positively associated with completed fertility, though the associations were not statistically significant. These variables show a significant positive pattern according to education. A high number of average working hours for men are negatively associated with completed fertility and show a strong negative pattern by educational level. The prevalence of gender-egalitarian norms is highly predictive of fertility levels, yet we found no consistent evidence of a weaker association of gender-equality policies in countries where egalitarian values are less prevalent.
Highlights
Gender systems are increasingly recognized as a critical component in explanations of fertility levels and differentials, in both advanced and less economically advanced societies (Bernhardt 1993; Folbre 1994; Joshi 1998; Rindfuss and Brewster 1996; Mason 1997; McDonald 2000a, b; Neyer et al 2013; EspingAndersen and Billari 2015)
The prevalence of genderegalitarian norms is highly predictive of fertility levels, yet we found no consistent evidence of a weaker association of gender-equality policies in countries where egalitarian values are less prevalent
It should be taken into account that data limitations prevent us from making strong causal statements, and we examine whether different policy and normative contexts are associated with fertility outcomes at the individual level
Summary
Gender systems are increasingly recognized as a critical component in explanations of fertility levels and differentials, in both advanced and less economically advanced societies (Bernhardt 1993; Folbre 1994; Joshi 1998; Rindfuss and Brewster 1996; Mason 1997; McDonald 2000a, b; Neyer et al 2013; EspingAndersen and Billari 2015). Different dimensions of the gender system, including divisions of labor, power and norms, have been related to fertility patterns, and several contributions highlight the key role of social institutions and their close relationship with the gender relations models that exist in different societies. Though several studies have carefully analyzed the influence of the gender division of labor in households as well as the influence of gender attitudes (e.g., Torr and Short 2004; Olah 2003; Cooke 2004; Brodmann et al 2007; Mencarini and Tanturri 2004; Mills et al 2008; Goldscheider et al 2013), other dimensions of gender relations, such as women’s capacity to form independent households or the relative level of resources and their connection to fertility, have received less attention (Neyer et al 2013). Though some elements of the gender perspective have sometimes been taken into account (Neyer and Andersson 2008; Billingsley and Ferrarini 2014), in most cases, this literature is not based on gender theory
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