Abstract
The number of sources of anthropogenic magnetic and electromagnetic fields generated by various underwater facilities, industrial equipment, and transferring devices in aquatic environment is increasing. These have an effect on an array of fish life processes, but especially the early developmental stages. The magnitude of these effects depends on field strength and time of exposure and is species-specific. We review studies on the effect of magnetic fields on the course of embryogenesis, with special reference to survival, the size of the embryos, embryonic motor function, changes in pigment cells, respiration hatching, and directional reactions. We also describe the effect of magnetic fields on sperm motility and egg activation. Magnetic fields can exert positive effects, as in the case of the considerable extension of sperm capability of activation, or have a negative influence in the form of a disturbance in heart rate or developmental instability in inner ear organs.
Highlights
Field on the Early DevelopmentalThe number of sources of anthropogenic magnetic fields (MFs) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) that affect fishes increases constantly with technological advancement
We review the effect of MF and EMFs on early developmental stages, with special reference to gametes, embryogenesis, the survival of the embryos, changes in larval behavior, and pigmentation; during these stages, when cell differentiation takes place, the developing organism is most susceptible to the Stages of Fishes—A Review
Fish embryogenesis is sufficiently long-lasting for its course to become modified when the developing embryo is placed in a distorted geomagnetic field (GMF); [11,12]
Summary
The number of sources of anthropogenic magnetic fields (MFs) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) that affect fishes increases constantly with technological advancement This is due to the increasing number of electricity-generating and transferring devices in water: electric power stations, wind farms, pipelines with a cathodic protection system, and, most of all, high-power transmission cables [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. The first includes high voltage direct current cables (HVDC), which emit static magnetic fields (SMFs); the second includes alternating current cables (AC), which emit time-varying EMFs [4]. The characteristics of these two categories are different, and, in consequence, they have different effects on fishes. Effects of such factors, and the consequences of these effects extend to the whole life span of the fish and even to future generations
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